U.S. Supreme Court Decision Making in the Area of Religion, 1987-2011
There are many views on how human decision makers behave. In this work, the Justices of the United States Supreme Court will be viewed in terms of constrained maximization and cognitivecybernetic theory. This paper will integrate research in such fields as law, political science, psychology, economics and decision making theory. It will be argued that due to its heavy workload, the Supreme Court is forced to make decisions in a boundedly rational manner. The ideas and theory put forward here will be tested in the area of the Court’s decisions involving religion. Therefore, the cases involving the U.S. Constitution’s Free Exercise Clause and Establishment Clause will be analyzed. Also, variables such as the U.S. government’s involvement in these cases will be considered. The years to be studied will be 1987-2011.
<p>[1] M. McCarthy, A Delicate Balance: Church, State and the Schools
Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Education Foundation, 1983.
[2] Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 15, 1947.
[3] Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962); School District v. Schempp, 374
U.S. 203, 1963.
[4] Walz v. Tax Commission, 397 U.S. 664, 1970.
[5] Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971); Meek v. Pittenger, 421 U.S.
359, 1975.
[6] Lee v. Weisman 505 U.S. 577, 1992; Santa Fe School District v. Doe
530 U.S. 290, 2000; Rosenberger v. University of Virginia 515 U.S.
819, 1995; Agostini v. Felton 521 U.S. 203, 1997; Good News Club v.
Milford Central School 533 U.S. 98, 2001; Zelman v. Simmons Harris
536 U.S. 639, 2002.
[7] Van Orden v. Perry 543 U.S. 1135, 2005; McCreary v. American Civil
Liberties Union 545 U.S. 844, 2005.
[8] Leo Pfeifer, "The Current State of the Law in the U.S. and the
Separationist Agenda," The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, 1979, p. 5.
[9] McCarthy, A Delicate Balance, 117.
[10] J. Choper, "The Religion Clauses of the First Amendment: Reconciling
the Conflict," U. of Pittsburgh L. Rev. vol. 41, p. 680, 1980.
[11] Pfeffer, "The Current State of the Law in the U.S.," 235.
[12] E. Tager, "The Supreme Court, Effect Inquiry, and Aid to Parochial
Education," Stanford L. Rev. vol 37, 235, 1984.
[13] J. Nowak, R. Rotunda, and J. Nelson Young, Constitutional Law, St.
Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., p. 858, 1978.
[14] D. Schultz, J. Vile, and M. Deardorff, Constitutional Law in
Contemporary America, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 82, 2011.
[15] A. T. Mason and D. G. Stephenson, Jr., American Constitutional Law,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson and Prentice Hall, p. 533, 2009.
[16] 98 U.S. 145, 1878.
[17] 366 U.S. 599, 1961.
[18] 374 U.S. 398, 1963.
[19] 406 U.S. 205, 1972.
[20] 494 U.S. 872, 1990.
[21] City of Boerne v. Flores (1997); Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita (2006).
[22] Mark Tushnet, “The Constitution of Religion,” Rev. of Pol., vol. 50, p.
628, 1988.
[23] L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law, Mineola, NY: The Foundation
Press, p. 1264, 1988.
[24] R. Miller and R. Flowers, Toward Benevolent Neutrality: Church, State,
and the Supreme Court, Waco, TX :Baylor University Press, p. 59,
1977.
[25] M. McConnell, “Free Exercise Revisionism and the Smith decision,” U.
of Chicago Law Rev., vol. 57, p. 1109, 1990.
[26] K. Wald, Religion & Politics in the United States, New York: St. Martin
Press, p. 135. 1987.
[27] Schultz, Vile, and Deardorff, 129.
[28] J. Ignagni, “U.S. Supreme Court Decision-Making and the Free Exercise
Clause,” Rev. of Pol. Vo.l. 55, pp. 511-529, 1993.; J. Ignagni,
“Explaining and Predicting Supreme Court Decision Making: The
Burger Court’s Establishment Clause Decisions,” J. of Church and State,
vol. 36, pp. 301-327, 1994.
[29] D. Rohde and H. Spaeth, Supreme Court Decision Making, San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., p. 70, 1976..
[30] Ibid., 72.
[31] Ibid., 75-78.
[32] Ibid., 70.
[33] S. S. Ulmer, Supreme Court Policymaking and Constitutional Law, New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., p. 13, 1986.
[34] Ibid., 16.
[35] H. Spaeth, Supreme Court Policy Making, San Francisco: W. H.
Freeman and Co., p. 113, 1979.
[36] Rohde and Spaeth, Supreme Court Decision Making, 72.
[37] Ibid., xv.
[38] E.g., F. Kort, "Predicting Supreme Court Decisions Mathematically: A
Quantitative Analysis of the Right to Counsel Cases," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev.
vol. 51, pp. 1-12, 1957; Kort, "Content Analysis and Judicial Opinions
and Rules of Law," Judicial Decision Making, ed. G. Schubert, New
York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963; Kort, "Regression Analysis and
Discriminant Analysis: An Application of R. A. Fisher's Theorem to
Data in Political Science," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. vol. 67, pp. 555-59, 1973;
S. S. Ulmer, "Supreme Court Behavior in Racial Exclusion Cases: 1935-
1960," Am. Pol. Sc. Rev. vol. 56, pp. 325-30, 1962; S. S. Ulmer, "The
Supreme Court and 'Jury Selection' Facts," in Courts, Law, and Judicial
Processes, ed. S. S. Ulmer, New York: Free Press, 1981; Ulmer, "The
Supreme Court's Certiorari Decisions: Conflict as a Predictive Variable,"
Am. Pol. Sci. Rev vol. 78, pp. 902-11, 1984; J. Tanenhaus, M. Schick,
M. Muraskin, and D. Rosen, "The Supreme Court's Certiorari
Jurisdiction and Cue Theory," in Judicial Decision Making, ed. G.
Schubert, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1963; D. Songer, "Concern for Policy
Outputs as a Cue for Supreme Court Decisions on Certiorari," J. of Pol.
Vol. 41, pp. 1185-94; S. Teger and D. Kosinski, "The Cue Theory of
Supreme Court Certiorari Jurisdiction: A Reconsideration," J. of Pol.
Vol. 42, pp. 834-46, 1980; J. Segal, "Predicting Supreme Court Cases
Probabilistically: The Search and Seizure Cases, 1962-1981," Am. Pol.
Sci. Rev vol. 78, pp. 891-900, 1984; Segal, "Measuring Change on the
Supreme Court: Examining Alternative Models," Am. J. of Pol. Sc. Vol.
29, pp. 461-78, 1985; Segal, "Supreme Court Justices as Human
Decision Makers: An Individual-Level Analysis of the Search and
Seizure Cases," J. of Pol. Vol. 48 p. 938. 1986; G. Gryski, E. Main, and
W. Dixon, "Models of State High Court Decision Making in Sex
Discrimination Cases," J. of Pol. Vol. 48, 143-53, 1986.
[39] H. Simon, "Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology with
Political Sceince," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev, vol. 79, p. 294, 1985.
[40] Ibid.
[41] H. Simon, Sciences of the Artificial, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, p. 190, 1981.
[42] H. Simon, Models of Man, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 198, 1957;
see also “Theories of Bounded Rationality,” in Models of Bounded
Rationality, Vol. 2, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 408-423, 1982.
[43] H. Simon, Models of Thought, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, p. 3, 1979.
[44] Ibid., 26.
[45] Ibid., 3.
[46] Simon, Sciences of the Artificial, p. 36.
[47] The discussion which follows focuses on cybernetic theory. Cognitive
theory simply supplements the cybernetic paradigm in certain situations.
Steinbruner argues that simple cybernetic decision making has problems
when the environment is not highly structured and when it is necessary
to make inductive inferences (13-14). In these situations there are
cognitive principles (inferential memory, consistency, reality, simplicity,
and stability) which provide the stable structure necessary for cybernetic
processes to operate (95-103).
[48] J. D. Steinbruner, The Cybernetic Theory of Decision, Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, p. 66, 1974, 2002.
[49] Ibid.
[50] Ibid., 67.
[51] Ibid.
[52] Ibid., 66.
[53] H. Abraham, The Judiciary: The Supreme Court in the Governmental
Process, 7th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p. 33, 1987.
[54] O'Brien, Storm Center, 147.
[55] L. Baum, The Supreme Court, 2nd ed., Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Quarterly Press, pp. 101-02, 1985; J. Grossman and R. Wells,
Constitutional Law and Judicial Policy Making, 3rd ed., New York:
Longman, p. 46, 1988.; H. Stumpf, American Judicial Politics New
York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, p. 133, 1988.
[56] Stumpf, 136; L. Baum, The Supreme Court, 10th ed., Washington, D.C.:
Congressional Quarterly Press, p. 98, 2010.
[57] O'Brien, Storm Center, p. 153.
[58] Grossman and Wells, Constitutional Law, p. 49.
[59] G. Casper and R. Posner, The Workload of the Supreme Court, Chicago:
American Bar Foundation, pp. 65-66, 1986.
[60] O'Brien, Storm Center, p. 153.
[61] B. Woodward and S. Armstrong, The Brethren, New York: Simon and
Schuster, p. 273, 1979.
[62] Ibid.
[63] Stumpf, American Judicial Politics, p. 399.
[64] K. Ripple, "The Supreme Court's Workload: Some Thoughts for the
Practitioner," Am. Bar Assoc. J. vol. 66, p. 175, 1980b.
[65] Supra note 28.
[66] Ibid., Ignagni 1993.
[67] E.g., J. Tanenhaus, "Supreme Court Attitudes Toward Administrative
Agencies," J. of Pol. Vol. 22, pp. 502-21, 1960; Tanenhaus et al, "The
Supreme Court's Certiorari Jurisdiction and Cue Theory" in Judicial
Decision Making; K. M. Werdegar, "The Solicitor General and
Administrative Due Process," G. W. Law Rev. vol. 36, pp. 481-514,
1967; R. Scigliano, The Supreme Court and the Presidency, New York:
Free Press, 1971; B. Cannon and M. Giles, "Recurring Litigants: Federal
Agencies Before the Supreme Court," W. Pol. Sci. Q. vol. 25, pp. 183-
91, 1972; P. Carrington, "U.S. Appeals in Civil Cases: A Field and
Statistical Study," Houston L. Rev. vol. 11, pp. 1101-29, 1974; S. Puro,
"The United States as Amicus Curiae," in Courts, Law, and the Judicial
Process, ed. S. S. Ulmer, New York: Free Press, 1981; K. O'Connor,
"The Amicus Curiae Role of the U.S. Solicitor General in Supreme
Court Litigation," Judicature vol. 66, pp. 256-64, 1983; K. O'Connor
and L. Epstein, "States Rights or Criminal Rights: An Analysis o£ State
Performance in U.S. Supreme Court Litigation," presented at the annual
meeting of the Northeastern Political Science Association, 1983; L.
Caplan, The Tenth Justice: The Solicitor General and the Rule of Law,
New York: Knopf, 1987; J. Segal, "Predicting Supreme Court Cases
Probabilistically: The Search and Seizure Cases"; Segal, "Amicus Curiae
Briefs by the Solicitor General during the Warren and Burger Courts: A
Research Note," W. Pol. Q. vol. 41, p. 13544, 1988.
[68] R. Deen, J. Ignagni, and J. Meernik, “The Solicitor General as Amicus
1953-2000: How Influential?” Judicature vol. 87, pp. 60-71, 2003.
[69] Ibid., 68.
[70] Ignagni, 1993.
[71] Ignagni, 1994.
[72] Ibid.</p>
<p>[1] M. McCarthy, A Delicate Balance: Church, State and the Schools
Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Education Foundation, 1983.
[2] Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 15, 1947.
[3] Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962); School District v. Schempp, 374
U.S. 203, 1963.
[4] Walz v. Tax Commission, 397 U.S. 664, 1970.
[5] Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971); Meek v. Pittenger, 421 U.S.
359, 1975.
[6] Lee v. Weisman 505 U.S. 577, 1992; Santa Fe School District v. Doe
530 U.S. 290, 2000; Rosenberger v. University of Virginia 515 U.S.
819, 1995; Agostini v. Felton 521 U.S. 203, 1997; Good News Club v.
Milford Central School 533 U.S. 98, 2001; Zelman v. Simmons Harris
536 U.S. 639, 2002.
[7] Van Orden v. Perry 543 U.S. 1135, 2005; McCreary v. American Civil
Liberties Union 545 U.S. 844, 2005.
[8] Leo Pfeifer, "The Current State of the Law in the U.S. and the
Separationist Agenda," The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, 1979, p. 5.
[9] McCarthy, A Delicate Balance, 117.
[10] J. Choper, "The Religion Clauses of the First Amendment: Reconciling
the Conflict," U. of Pittsburgh L. Rev. vol. 41, p. 680, 1980.
[11] Pfeffer, "The Current State of the Law in the U.S.," 235.
[12] E. Tager, "The Supreme Court, Effect Inquiry, and Aid to Parochial
Education," Stanford L. Rev. vol 37, 235, 1984.
[13] J. Nowak, R. Rotunda, and J. Nelson Young, Constitutional Law, St.
Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., p. 858, 1978.
[14] D. Schultz, J. Vile, and M. Deardorff, Constitutional Law in
Contemporary America, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 82, 2011.
[15] A. T. Mason and D. G. Stephenson, Jr., American Constitutional Law,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson and Prentice Hall, p. 533, 2009.
[16] 98 U.S. 145, 1878.
[17] 366 U.S. 599, 1961.
[18] 374 U.S. 398, 1963.
[19] 406 U.S. 205, 1972.
[20] 494 U.S. 872, 1990.
[21] City of Boerne v. Flores (1997); Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita (2006).
[22] Mark Tushnet, “The Constitution of Religion,” Rev. of Pol., vol. 50, p.
628, 1988.
[23] L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law, Mineola, NY: The Foundation
Press, p. 1264, 1988.
[24] R. Miller and R. Flowers, Toward Benevolent Neutrality: Church, State,
and the Supreme Court, Waco, TX :Baylor University Press, p. 59,
1977.
[25] M. McConnell, “Free Exercise Revisionism and the Smith decision,” U.
of Chicago Law Rev., vol. 57, p. 1109, 1990.
[26] K. Wald, Religion & Politics in the United States, New York: St. Martin
Press, p. 135. 1987.
[27] Schultz, Vile, and Deardorff, 129.
[28] J. Ignagni, “U.S. Supreme Court Decision-Making and the Free Exercise
Clause,” Rev. of Pol. Vo.l. 55, pp. 511-529, 1993.; J. Ignagni,
“Explaining and Predicting Supreme Court Decision Making: The
Burger Court’s Establishment Clause Decisions,” J. of Church and State,
vol. 36, pp. 301-327, 1994.
[29] D. Rohde and H. Spaeth, Supreme Court Decision Making, San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., p. 70, 1976..
[30] Ibid., 72.
[31] Ibid., 75-78.
[32] Ibid., 70.
[33] S. S. Ulmer, Supreme Court Policymaking and Constitutional Law, New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., p. 13, 1986.
[34] Ibid., 16.
[35] H. Spaeth, Supreme Court Policy Making, San Francisco: W. H.
Freeman and Co., p. 113, 1979.
[36] Rohde and Spaeth, Supreme Court Decision Making, 72.
[37] Ibid., xv.
[38] E.g., F. Kort, "Predicting Supreme Court Decisions Mathematically: A
Quantitative Analysis of the Right to Counsel Cases," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev.
vol. 51, pp. 1-12, 1957; Kort, "Content Analysis and Judicial Opinions
and Rules of Law," Judicial Decision Making, ed. G. Schubert, New
York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963; Kort, "Regression Analysis and
Discriminant Analysis: An Application of R. A. Fisher's Theorem to
Data in Political Science," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. vol. 67, pp. 555-59, 1973;
S. S. Ulmer, "Supreme Court Behavior in Racial Exclusion Cases: 1935-
1960," Am. Pol. Sc. Rev. vol. 56, pp. 325-30, 1962; S. S. Ulmer, "The
Supreme Court and 'Jury Selection' Facts," in Courts, Law, and Judicial
Processes, ed. S. S. Ulmer, New York: Free Press, 1981; Ulmer, "The
Supreme Court's Certiorari Decisions: Conflict as a Predictive Variable,"
Am. Pol. Sci. Rev vol. 78, pp. 902-11, 1984; J. Tanenhaus, M. Schick,
M. Muraskin, and D. Rosen, "The Supreme Court's Certiorari
Jurisdiction and Cue Theory," in Judicial Decision Making, ed. G.
Schubert, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1963; D. Songer, "Concern for Policy
Outputs as a Cue for Supreme Court Decisions on Certiorari," J. of Pol.
Vol. 41, pp. 1185-94; S. Teger and D. Kosinski, "The Cue Theory of
Supreme Court Certiorari Jurisdiction: A Reconsideration," J. of Pol.
Vol. 42, pp. 834-46, 1980; J. Segal, "Predicting Supreme Court Cases
Probabilistically: The Search and Seizure Cases, 1962-1981," Am. Pol.
Sci. Rev vol. 78, pp. 891-900, 1984; Segal, "Measuring Change on the
Supreme Court: Examining Alternative Models," Am. J. of Pol. Sc. Vol.
29, pp. 461-78, 1985; Segal, "Supreme Court Justices as Human
Decision Makers: An Individual-Level Analysis of the Search and
Seizure Cases," J. of Pol. Vol. 48 p. 938. 1986; G. Gryski, E. Main, and
W. Dixon, "Models of State High Court Decision Making in Sex
Discrimination Cases," J. of Pol. Vol. 48, 143-53, 1986.
[39] H. Simon, "Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology with
Political Sceince," Am. Pol. Sci. Rev, vol. 79, p. 294, 1985.
[40] Ibid.
[41] H. Simon, Sciences of the Artificial, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, p. 190, 1981.
[42] H. Simon, Models of Man, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 198, 1957;
see also “Theories of Bounded Rationality,” in Models of Bounded
Rationality, Vol. 2, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 408-423, 1982.
[43] H. Simon, Models of Thought, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, p. 3, 1979.
[44] Ibid., 26.
[45] Ibid., 3.
[46] Simon, Sciences of the Artificial, p. 36.
[47] The discussion which follows focuses on cybernetic theory. Cognitive
theory simply supplements the cybernetic paradigm in certain situations.
Steinbruner argues that simple cybernetic decision making has problems
when the environment is not highly structured and when it is necessary
to make inductive inferences (13-14). In these situations there are
cognitive principles (inferential memory, consistency, reality, simplicity,
and stability) which provide the stable structure necessary for cybernetic
processes to operate (95-103).
[48] J. D. Steinbruner, The Cybernetic Theory of Decision, Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, p. 66, 1974, 2002.
[49] Ibid.
[50] Ibid., 67.
[51] Ibid.
[52] Ibid., 66.
[53] H. Abraham, The Judiciary: The Supreme Court in the Governmental
Process, 7th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p. 33, 1987.
[54] O'Brien, Storm Center, 147.
[55] L. Baum, The Supreme Court, 2nd ed., Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Quarterly Press, pp. 101-02, 1985; J. Grossman and R. Wells,
Constitutional Law and Judicial Policy Making, 3rd ed., New York:
Longman, p. 46, 1988.; H. Stumpf, American Judicial Politics New
York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, p. 133, 1988.
[56] Stumpf, 136; L. Baum, The Supreme Court, 10th ed., Washington, D.C.:
Congressional Quarterly Press, p. 98, 2010.
[57] O'Brien, Storm Center, p. 153.
[58] Grossman and Wells, Constitutional Law, p. 49.
[59] G. Casper and R. Posner, The Workload of the Supreme Court, Chicago:
American Bar Foundation, pp. 65-66, 1986.
[60] O'Brien, Storm Center, p. 153.
[61] B. Woodward and S. Armstrong, The Brethren, New York: Simon and
Schuster, p. 273, 1979.
[62] Ibid.
[63] Stumpf, American Judicial Politics, p. 399.
[64] K. Ripple, "The Supreme Court's Workload: Some Thoughts for the
Practitioner," Am. Bar Assoc. J. vol. 66, p. 175, 1980b.
[65] Supra note 28.
[66] Ibid., Ignagni 1993.
[67] E.g., J. Tanenhaus, "Supreme Court Attitudes Toward Administrative
Agencies," J. of Pol. Vol. 22, pp. 502-21, 1960; Tanenhaus et al, "The
Supreme Court's Certiorari Jurisdiction and Cue Theory" in Judicial
Decision Making; K. M. Werdegar, "The Solicitor General and
Administrative Due Process," G. W. Law Rev. vol. 36, pp. 481-514,
1967; R. Scigliano, The Supreme Court and the Presidency, New York:
Free Press, 1971; B. Cannon and M. Giles, "Recurring Litigants: Federal
Agencies Before the Supreme Court," W. Pol. Sci. Q. vol. 25, pp. 183-
91, 1972; P. Carrington, "U.S. Appeals in Civil Cases: A Field and
Statistical Study," Houston L. Rev. vol. 11, pp. 1101-29, 1974; S. Puro,
"The United States as Amicus Curiae," in Courts, Law, and the Judicial
Process, ed. S. S. Ulmer, New York: Free Press, 1981; K. O'Connor,
"The Amicus Curiae Role of the U.S. Solicitor General in Supreme
Court Litigation," Judicature vol. 66, pp. 256-64, 1983; K. O'Connor
and L. Epstein, "States Rights or Criminal Rights: An Analysis o£ State
Performance in U.S. Supreme Court Litigation," presented at the annual
meeting of the Northeastern Political Science Association, 1983; L.
Caplan, The Tenth Justice: The Solicitor General and the Rule of Law,
New York: Knopf, 1987; J. Segal, "Predicting Supreme Court Cases
Probabilistically: The Search and Seizure Cases"; Segal, "Amicus Curiae
Briefs by the Solicitor General during the Warren and Burger Courts: A
Research Note," W. Pol. Q. vol. 41, p. 13544, 1988.
[68] R. Deen, J. Ignagni, and J. Meernik, “The Solicitor General as Amicus
1953-2000: How Influential?” Judicature vol. 87, pp. 60-71, 2003.
[69] Ibid., 68.
[70] Ignagni, 1993.
[71] Ignagni, 1994.
[72] Ibid.</p>
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:59395", author = "Joseph Ignagni and Rebecca E. Deen", title = "U.S. Supreme Court Decision Making in the Area of Religion, 1987-2011", abstract = "There are many views on how human decision makers behave. In this work, the Justices of the United States Supreme Court will be viewed in terms of constrained maximization and cognitivecybernetic theory. This paper will integrate research in such fields as law, political science, psychology, economics and decision making theory. It will be argued that due to its heavy workload, the Supreme Court is forced to make decisions in a boundedly rational manner. The ideas and theory put forward here will be tested in the area of the Court’s decisions involving religion. Therefore, the cases involving the U.S. Constitution’s Free Exercise Clause and Establishment Clause will be analyzed. Also, variables such as the U.S. government’s involvement in these cases will be considered. The years to be studied will be 1987-2011.
", keywords = "Establishment Clause, Free Exercise Clause, U.S.
Constitution, U.S. Supreme Court.", volume = "7", number = "6", pages = "1729-11", }
