Turkey in Minds: Cognitive and Social Representations of "East" and "West"
Perception, evaluation and representation of the
environment have been the subject of many disciplines including
psychology, geography and architecture. In environmental and social
psychology literature there are several evidences which suggest that
cognitive representations about a place consisted of not only
geographic items but also social and cultural. Mental representations
of residence area or a country are influenced and determined by
social-demographics, the physical and social context. Thus, all
mental representations of a given place are also social
representations. Cognitive maps are the main and common
instruments that are used to identify spatial images and the difference
between physical and subjective environments. The aim of the
current study is investigating the mental and social representations of
Turkey in university students’ minds. Data was collected from 249
university students from different departments (i.e. psychology,
geography, history, tourism departments) of Ege University.
Participants were requested to reflect Turkey in their mind onto the
paper drawing sketch maps. According to the results, cognitive maps
showed geographic aspects of Turkey as well as the context of
symbolic, cultural and political reality of Turkey. That is to say, these
maps had many symbolic and verbal items related to critics on social
and cultural problems, ongoing ethnic and political conflicts, and
actual political agenda of Turkey. Additionally, one of main
differentiations in these representations appeared in terms of the East
and West side of the Turkey, and the representations of the East and
West was varied correspondingly participants’ cultural background,
their ethnic values, and where they have born. The results of the
study were discussed in environmental and social psychological
perspective considering cultural and social values of Turkey and
current political circumstances of the country.
[1] S. Milgram, J. Greenwald, S. Kessler, W. McKenna, and J. Waters. “A
psychological map of New York City,” American Scientists, vol. 60, pp.
194-204, 1972.
[2] M. Göregenli. Çevre Psikolojisi: İnsan-Mekan İlişkileri. Istanbul: Bilgi
University Press, 2010.
[3] S. Milgram and D. Jodelet. “Psychological maps of Paris,” in
Environmental psychology: People and their physical settings, H.M.
Proshansky, W.H. Ittelson & L.G. Rivlin, Eds., New York: Holt
Rinehart & Winston, pp. 104-124, 1976.
[4] C. Andressen. “Mental maps of Asia: The geographical knowledge of
Australian university students,” Asian Studies Review, vol. 21, pp. 115-
130, 1997.
[5] M. Yeğen. “Prospective-Turks" or "Pseudo-Citizens" Kurds in Turkey,”
The Middle East Journal, vol. 63, pp. 597-615, 2009.
[6] D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan, and A. T. Aker.
“Introduction to the Turkish Edition,” in Coming to Terms With Forced
Migration: Post-Displacement Restitution of Citizenship Rights in
Turkey, D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan & A. T. Aker,
Eds., Istanbul: TESEV publications, pp. 21-27, 2007.
[7] Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV). A roadmap
for a solution to the Kurdish Question: Policy proposals from the region
for the government.Istanbul: TESEV Publications, p. 11, 2008.
[8] R. Cohen. “Foreword to the English edition,” in Coming to Terms With
Forced Migration: Post-Displacement Restitution of Citizenship Rights
in Turkey, D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan, and A. T.
Aker, Eds., Istanbul: TESEV publications, pp. 1-5, 2007.
[9] M. Göregenli. “Psikolojinin Kürt sorunuyla imtihanı,” Eleştirel Psikoloji
Bülteni 3-4, pp. 3-11, 2010.
[10] H. Pope. “Turkey and the democratic opening for the Kurds,” in
Understanding Turkey’s Kurdish Question, F. Bilgin & A. Sarıhan, Eds.,
Lexington Books:UK, pp. 117-140, 2013.
[11] Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey. “Archive of general elections of
Turkey,” (Online), Available
http://www.ysk.gov.tr/ysk/faces/GenelSecimler?_afrLoop=7851470143
63920&_afr
WindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=19vmii0okj_28#%40%3F_afrWindo
wId%3D19vmii0okj_28%26_afrLoop%3D785147014363920%26_afrW
indowMode%3D0%26_adf.ctrl-state%3D19vmii0okj_40 (Accessed:
Mar. 15, 2015).
[12] C. Boyraz and Ö. Turan. “Silent violence: Neoliberalism, Islamist
politics and the AKP years in Turkey,” Turkish Studies, vol. 14, pp. 186-
192, 2013.
[13] Amnesty International USA."Gezi Park Protests ,” (Online), Available
https://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/eur440222013en.pdf
(Accessed: Apr. 05, 2015).
[14] I. Sudas and C. Gokten. “Cognitive maps of Europe: Geographical
knowledge of Turkish geography students,” European Journal of
Geography, vol. 3, pp. 41-56, 2012.
[15] A. Medzini. “The war of the maps: The political use of maps and atlases
to shape national consciousness – Israel versus the Palestinian
authority,” European Journal of Geography, vol. 3, pp. 23-40, 2012.
[16] N. Collins-Kreiner, Y. Mansfeld, and N. Kliot. “The reflection of a
political conflict in mapping: The case of Israel's borders and frontiers,”
Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 42, pp. 381-408, 2006.
[17] H. Heft. “Environment, cognition, and culture: Reconsidering the
cognitive map,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 33, pp. 14-
25, 2013.
[18] I. Sudas and M. Göregenli. “Türkiye’nin Modernleşme Macerasında
Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Avrupa Temsilleri,” presented at the Ege
University 12th International Cultural Studies Symposium: Redefining
Modernism & Postmodernism,Izmir, Turkey, 2009.
[19] A. Karadag and H. Turut. “Üniversite öğrencilerinin kentsel çevre algısı
üzerine bir araştırma: İzmir örneği,” Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, vol. 11,
pp. 31-51, 2013.
[20] S. Moscovici and I. Markova. “Presenting social representation: A
conversation,” Culture & Psychology, vol. 4, pp. 371-410, 1998.
[21] F. G. Cirhinoğlu, V. Aktas, and B. Öner Özkan. “Sosyal temsil kuramına
genel bir bakış,”C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, vol. 30, pp. 163-174,
2006.
[22] B. Öner. “Sosyal temsiller,” Kriz Dergisi, vol. 10, pp. 29-35, 2002.
[23] N. Bilgin. “Sosyal Temsiller Açısından Ermeni Soykırım İddiaları ve
Tarihin İnşası,” presented at the Turkey Armenian Researches Congress,
Ankara, 2002.
[24] S. Moscovici. “Foreword,” in Health and Illness: A Social Psychological
Analysis, C. Herzlich, Ed., London: Academic Press, pp. x-xiv, 1973.
[25] B. Höijer. “Social representations theory: A new theory for media
research,” Nordicom Review, vol. 32, pp. 3-16, 2011.
[26] I. Sudas and M. Göregenli. “Europe in mind: Social representations of
Turkey-Europe relations in case of Turkish university students,”
European Journal of Geography, vol. 4, pp. 36-47, 2013.
[27] R. M. Farr. “Social Representations: Their role in the design and
execution of laboratory experiments,” in Social Representations, R.M.
Farr and S. Moscovici, Eds., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp.125-147, 1984.
[28] J. Potter. “Discourse analysis and constructionist approaches:
Theoretical background,” in Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods
for Psychology and the Social Sciences, J. T. E. Richardson, Ed.,
Leicester: British Psychological Society, pp.125-140, 1996.
[29] J. Potter. “Discourse analysis as a way of analyzing naturally occurring
talk,” in Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice, D.
Silverman, Ed., London: Sage, pp. 144-160, 1997.
[30] C. Hardy, B. Harley, and N. Phillips. “Discourse analysis and content
analysis: Two solitudes?” Qualitative methods, vol. 2, pp. 19-22, 2004.
[31] M. Göregenli. “Kentsel Alanların Algılanması ve Kentsel İmajlar,” M.
S. thesis, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey, 1985.
[32] S. Moscovici. “The phenomenon of social representations,” in Social
Representations, R. M. Farr and S. Moscovici, Eds., Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-35, 1984.
[33] N. Bilgin. Sosyal psikoloji, 6sted. Izmir: Ege University Press, 2014.
[34] Ç. Kağıtçıbaşı and J. W. Berry. “Cross-cultural psychology: Current
research and trends,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 40, pp. 493-
531, 1989.
[35] M. Göregenli. “Kültürümüz açısından bireycilik-toplulukçuluk
eğilimleri: Bir başlangıç çalışması,” Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, vol. 10, pp.
1-14, 1994.
[36] H. C. Triandis. Individualism & collectivism. USA: Western Press,
1995.
[37] N. Bilgin. Sosyal psikoloji sözlüğü. Istanbul: Bağlam Yayıncılık, 2003.
[38] H. Yavuz. “Batılılaşma değil, oryantalistleşme,” Doğu Batı, vol. 1, pp.
100-103, 1998.
[1] S. Milgram, J. Greenwald, S. Kessler, W. McKenna, and J. Waters. “A
psychological map of New York City,” American Scientists, vol. 60, pp.
194-204, 1972.
[2] M. Göregenli. Çevre Psikolojisi: İnsan-Mekan İlişkileri. Istanbul: Bilgi
University Press, 2010.
[3] S. Milgram and D. Jodelet. “Psychological maps of Paris,” in
Environmental psychology: People and their physical settings, H.M.
Proshansky, W.H. Ittelson & L.G. Rivlin, Eds., New York: Holt
Rinehart & Winston, pp. 104-124, 1976.
[4] C. Andressen. “Mental maps of Asia: The geographical knowledge of
Australian university students,” Asian Studies Review, vol. 21, pp. 115-
130, 1997.
[5] M. Yeğen. “Prospective-Turks" or "Pseudo-Citizens" Kurds in Turkey,”
The Middle East Journal, vol. 63, pp. 597-615, 2009.
[6] D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan, and A. T. Aker.
“Introduction to the Turkish Edition,” in Coming to Terms With Forced
Migration: Post-Displacement Restitution of Citizenship Rights in
Turkey, D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan & A. T. Aker,
Eds., Istanbul: TESEV publications, pp. 21-27, 2007.
[7] Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV). A roadmap
for a solution to the Kurdish Question: Policy proposals from the region
for the government.Istanbul: TESEV Publications, p. 11, 2008.
[8] R. Cohen. “Foreword to the English edition,” in Coming to Terms With
Forced Migration: Post-Displacement Restitution of Citizenship Rights
in Turkey, D. Kurban, D. Yukseker, A. B. Celik, T. Unalan, and A. T.
Aker, Eds., Istanbul: TESEV publications, pp. 1-5, 2007.
[9] M. Göregenli. “Psikolojinin Kürt sorunuyla imtihanı,” Eleştirel Psikoloji
Bülteni 3-4, pp. 3-11, 2010.
[10] H. Pope. “Turkey and the democratic opening for the Kurds,” in
Understanding Turkey’s Kurdish Question, F. Bilgin & A. Sarıhan, Eds.,
Lexington Books:UK, pp. 117-140, 2013.
[11] Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey. “Archive of general elections of
Turkey,” (Online), Available
http://www.ysk.gov.tr/ysk/faces/GenelSecimler?_afrLoop=7851470143
63920&_afr
WindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=19vmii0okj_28#%40%3F_afrWindo
wId%3D19vmii0okj_28%26_afrLoop%3D785147014363920%26_afrW
indowMode%3D0%26_adf.ctrl-state%3D19vmii0okj_40 (Accessed:
Mar. 15, 2015).
[12] C. Boyraz and Ö. Turan. “Silent violence: Neoliberalism, Islamist
politics and the AKP years in Turkey,” Turkish Studies, vol. 14, pp. 186-
192, 2013.
[13] Amnesty International USA."Gezi Park Protests ,” (Online), Available
https://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/eur440222013en.pdf
(Accessed: Apr. 05, 2015).
[14] I. Sudas and C. Gokten. “Cognitive maps of Europe: Geographical
knowledge of Turkish geography students,” European Journal of
Geography, vol. 3, pp. 41-56, 2012.
[15] A. Medzini. “The war of the maps: The political use of maps and atlases
to shape national consciousness – Israel versus the Palestinian
authority,” European Journal of Geography, vol. 3, pp. 23-40, 2012.
[16] N. Collins-Kreiner, Y. Mansfeld, and N. Kliot. “The reflection of a
political conflict in mapping: The case of Israel's borders and frontiers,”
Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 42, pp. 381-408, 2006.
[17] H. Heft. “Environment, cognition, and culture: Reconsidering the
cognitive map,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 33, pp. 14-
25, 2013.
[18] I. Sudas and M. Göregenli. “Türkiye’nin Modernleşme Macerasında
Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Avrupa Temsilleri,” presented at the Ege
University 12th International Cultural Studies Symposium: Redefining
Modernism & Postmodernism,Izmir, Turkey, 2009.
[19] A. Karadag and H. Turut. “Üniversite öğrencilerinin kentsel çevre algısı
üzerine bir araştırma: İzmir örneği,” Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, vol. 11,
pp. 31-51, 2013.
[20] S. Moscovici and I. Markova. “Presenting social representation: A
conversation,” Culture & Psychology, vol. 4, pp. 371-410, 1998.
[21] F. G. Cirhinoğlu, V. Aktas, and B. Öner Özkan. “Sosyal temsil kuramına
genel bir bakış,”C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, vol. 30, pp. 163-174,
2006.
[22] B. Öner. “Sosyal temsiller,” Kriz Dergisi, vol. 10, pp. 29-35, 2002.
[23] N. Bilgin. “Sosyal Temsiller Açısından Ermeni Soykırım İddiaları ve
Tarihin İnşası,” presented at the Turkey Armenian Researches Congress,
Ankara, 2002.
[24] S. Moscovici. “Foreword,” in Health and Illness: A Social Psychological
Analysis, C. Herzlich, Ed., London: Academic Press, pp. x-xiv, 1973.
[25] B. Höijer. “Social representations theory: A new theory for media
research,” Nordicom Review, vol. 32, pp. 3-16, 2011.
[26] I. Sudas and M. Göregenli. “Europe in mind: Social representations of
Turkey-Europe relations in case of Turkish university students,”
European Journal of Geography, vol. 4, pp. 36-47, 2013.
[27] R. M. Farr. “Social Representations: Their role in the design and
execution of laboratory experiments,” in Social Representations, R.M.
Farr and S. Moscovici, Eds., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp.125-147, 1984.
[28] J. Potter. “Discourse analysis and constructionist approaches:
Theoretical background,” in Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods
for Psychology and the Social Sciences, J. T. E. Richardson, Ed.,
Leicester: British Psychological Society, pp.125-140, 1996.
[29] J. Potter. “Discourse analysis as a way of analyzing naturally occurring
talk,” in Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice, D.
Silverman, Ed., London: Sage, pp. 144-160, 1997.
[30] C. Hardy, B. Harley, and N. Phillips. “Discourse analysis and content
analysis: Two solitudes?” Qualitative methods, vol. 2, pp. 19-22, 2004.
[31] M. Göregenli. “Kentsel Alanların Algılanması ve Kentsel İmajlar,” M.
S. thesis, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey, 1985.
[32] S. Moscovici. “The phenomenon of social representations,” in Social
Representations, R. M. Farr and S. Moscovici, Eds., Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-35, 1984.
[33] N. Bilgin. Sosyal psikoloji, 6sted. Izmir: Ege University Press, 2014.
[34] Ç. Kağıtçıbaşı and J. W. Berry. “Cross-cultural psychology: Current
research and trends,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 40, pp. 493-
531, 1989.
[35] M. Göregenli. “Kültürümüz açısından bireycilik-toplulukçuluk
eğilimleri: Bir başlangıç çalışması,” Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, vol. 10, pp.
1-14, 1994.
[36] H. C. Triandis. Individualism & collectivism. USA: Western Press,
1995.
[37] N. Bilgin. Sosyal psikoloji sözlüğü. Istanbul: Bağlam Yayıncılık, 2003.
[38] H. Yavuz. “Batılılaşma değil, oryantalistleşme,” Doğu Batı, vol. 1, pp.
100-103, 1998.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:70382", author = "Feyzan Tuzkaya and Nihan S. Soylu and Çağlar Solak and Hilal Peker and Mehmet Peker and Kemal Özeralp and Ceren Mete and Ezgi Mehmetoğlu and Mehmet Karasu and Cihan Elçi and Ece Akca and Melek Göregenli", title = "Turkey in Minds: Cognitive and Social Representations of "East" and "West"", abstract = "Perception, evaluation and representation of the
environment have been the subject of many disciplines including
psychology, geography and architecture. In environmental and social
psychology literature there are several evidences which suggest that
cognitive representations about a place consisted of not only
geographic items but also social and cultural. Mental representations
of residence area or a country are influenced and determined by
social-demographics, the physical and social context. Thus, all
mental representations of a given place are also social
representations. Cognitive maps are the main and common
instruments that are used to identify spatial images and the difference
between physical and subjective environments. The aim of the
current study is investigating the mental and social representations of
Turkey in university students’ minds. Data was collected from 249
university students from different departments (i.e. psychology,
geography, history, tourism departments) of Ege University.
Participants were requested to reflect Turkey in their mind onto the
paper drawing sketch maps. According to the results, cognitive maps
showed geographic aspects of Turkey as well as the context of
symbolic, cultural and political reality of Turkey. That is to say, these
maps had many symbolic and verbal items related to critics on social
and cultural problems, ongoing ethnic and political conflicts, and
actual political agenda of Turkey. Additionally, one of main
differentiations in these representations appeared in terms of the East
and West side of the Turkey, and the representations of the East and
West was varied correspondingly participants’ cultural background,
their ethnic values, and where they have born. The results of the
study were discussed in environmental and social psychological
perspective considering cultural and social values of Turkey and
current political circumstances of the country.", keywords = "Cognitive maps, East and West, politics, social
representations, Turkey.", volume = "9", number = "8", pages = "2710-7", }
