Sun, Salon, and Cosmetic Tanning: Predictors and Motives
The appearance management behavior of tanning by gay men is examined through the lens of Impression Formation. The study proposes that body image, self-esteem, and internalized homophobia are connected and affect the motives for engaging in sun, salon, and cosmetic tanning. Motives examined were: to look masculine, to look attractive to (potential) partners, to look attractive in general, to socialize, to meet a peer standard, and for personal satisfaction. Using regression analysis to examine data of 103 gay men who engage in at least one method of tanning, results reveal that components of body image and internalized homophobia–but not self-esteem–are linked to various motives and methods of tanning. These findings support and extend the literature of Impression Formation Theory and provide practitioners in the health and healthrelated fields new avenues to pursue when dealing with diseases related to tanning.
[1] L. A. G. Reis et al., SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2004.
Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [On line] Available:
http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2004
[2] A. G. Miller, W. A. Ashton, J. W. McHoskey, and J. Gimbel, "What
price attractiveness? Stereotype and risk factors in suntanning
behavior," in Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 20, pp. 1272-
1300, 1990.
[3] B. A. Banks, R. A. Silverman, R. H. Schwartz, and W. W. Tunnessen,
"Attitudes of teenagers toward sun exposure and sunscreen use," in
Pediatrics, vol. 98, pp. 40-42, 1992.
[4] J. R. Beech, E. Cheehan, and S. Barraclough, "Attitudes toward health
risks and sunbathing behavior" in The Journal of Psychology, vol. 130,
no. 6, pp. 669-677, 1996.
[5] M. A. Ramirez, M. M. Warthan, T. Uchida, and R. F. Wagner Jr., "
Double exposure: Natural and artificial ultraviolet radiation exposure in
beach goers," in Southern Medical Journal, vol. 96, no. 7, pp. 652-655,
2003.
[6] M. R. Leary and J. L. Jones, "The social psychology of tanning and
sunscreen use: Self-presentational motives as a predictor of health risk,"
in Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 23, pp. 1390-1406, 1993.
[7] J. Hillhouse, R. Turrisi, & M. Kastner, "Modeling tanning salon
behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and
The Theory of Planned Behavior," in Health Education Research, vol.
15, no. 4, pp. 405-414, 2000.
[8] R. Kampf, The Bear Handbook. New York City: Harrington Park
Press, 2000.
[9] J. Stossel and G. Brinkley, "Gay sterotypes: Are they true?" [Online}
Available: http://abcnews.go.com
[10] R. Klitzman, "From ÔÇÿmale bonding rituals- to ÔÇÿsuicide Tuesday-: A
qualitative study of issues faced by gay male ecstasy (MDMA) users," in
Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 7-32, 2006.
[11] T. E. Gettleman and J. K. Thompson, "Actual differences and
stereotypical perceptions in body image and eating disturbance: A
comparison of male and female heterosexual and homosexual samples,"
in Sex Roles, vol. 29, no. 7-8, pp. 545-562, 1993.
[12] L. G. Nungesser, Homosexual Acts, Actors, and Identities. New York:
Prager, 1983.
[13] D. E. S. Frable, C. Wortman, & J. Joseph, " Predicting self-esteem, wellbeing,
and distress in a cohort of gay men: The importance of cultural
stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity,"
in Journal of Personality, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 599-624, 1997.
[14] R. Savin-Williams, Gay and Lesbian Youth: Expressions of Identity.
New York: Hemisphere, 1990.
[15] N. A. Rudd and S. A Lennon, "Aesthetics of the body and social
identity," in M. R. DeLong and A. M. Fiore, Eds., Aesthetics of Textiles
and Clothing: Advancing Muliti-disciplinary Perspectives, pp. 163-175.
Monument, CO: ITAA, 1994.
[16] H. G. Pope, Jr., K. A. Phillips, and R. Olivardia, The Adonis Complex:
The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession. New York: The Free Press,
2000.
[17] J. K. Thompson, L. J. Heinberg, M. ALtabe, and S. tantleff-Dunn,
Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image
Disturbance. Washing, DC: APA, 1999.
[18] T. F. Cash, "The treatment of body image disturbances," in J. K.
Thompson, Ed., Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity, pp. 83-
107. Washington, DC: APA, 1996.
[19] M. D. Siever, "Sexual orientation and gender as factors in
socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating
disorders," in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 62,
no. 2, pp. 252-260, 1994.
[20] S. Prentice-Dunn, J. L. Jones, and D. L. Floyd, "Persuasive appeals and
the reduction of skin cancer risk: The roles of appearance concern,
perceived benefits of a tan, and efficacy information," in Journal of
Applies Social Psychology, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 1041-1047, 1997.
[21] G. H. Cohane and H. G. Pope, Jr., "Body image in boys: A review of
the literature," in International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 29, no.
4, pp. 373-379, 2001.
[22] S. J. Lennon, A. Lillethun, and S. S. Buckland, "Attitudes towards social
comparison as a function of self-esteem, idealized appearance, and body
image," in Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, vol. 27,
no. 4, pp. 379-405, 1999.
[23] A. Reilly and N. A. Rudd, "Is internalized homonegativity related to
body image?" in Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, vol.
35, no. 1., pp. 58-73, 2006.
[24] C. S. Koblenzer,"The psychology of sun-exposure and tanning," in
Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 421-428, 1998.
[25] R. Boer, "Skin gods: Circumcising the built male body," in Journal of
Men, masculinities, and Spirituality, vol. 1., no. 1, pp. 35-44, 2007.
[26] B. Keesling, and H. S. Friedman, "Psychosocial factors in sunbathing
and sunscreen use," in Health Psychology, vol. 6, pp. 477-493, 1987.
[27] M. Broadstock, R. Borland, and R. Gason, "Effects of suntan on
judgments of healthiness and attractiveness by adolescents," in Journal
of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 22, 157-172, 1992.
[28] T. Garvin and K. Wilson, "The use of storytelling for understanding
women-s desire to tan: Lessons from the field," in Professional
Geographer, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 269-306, 1999.
[29] L. Wichstrom, "PRecitors of Norwegian adolescents- sunbathing and use
of sun-screen" in Health Psychology, vol. 13, pp. 412-420, 1994.
[30] K. M. Jackson, and L. S. Aiken, "The psychosocial model of sun
protection and sunbathing in young women: The impact of health
beliefs, attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy for sun protection" in Health
Psychology, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 496-478, 2000.
[31] E. Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1959.
[32] N. A. Rudd and S. A Lennon, "Body image: Linking aesthetics and
social psychology of appearance," in Clothing and Textiles Research
Journal, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 120-133, 2001.
[33] T. A. Brown, T. F. Cash, and P. J. Mikulka, "Attitudinal body image
assessment" Factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire,"
in Journal of Personality Assessment, vol. 55, pp. 134-144, 1990.
[34] T. F. Cash, "Body-image effect: Gestalt versus summing the parts," in
Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 17-18, 1989.
[35] M. Rosenberg, Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books, 1979.
[36] M. Rosenberg, Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
[37] L. Chang, "A comparison of samples and response quality obtained from
RDD telephone survey methodology and Internet survey methodology,"
Ph.D dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 2001.
[38] P. Kellner, "Can online polls produce accurate findings?" in
International Journal of Market Research, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 3-21, 2004.
[39] J. M. Penkala, "Internet vs. access point intercept survey to obtain
stakeholder information," in Human Dimensions of Wildlife, vol. 9, no.
1, pp.69-78, 2004.
[40] D. J. Allen and T. Oleson, "Shame and internalized homonegativity in
gay men," Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 33-43, 1999.
[1] L. A. G. Reis et al., SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2004.
Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [On line] Available:
http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2004
[2] A. G. Miller, W. A. Ashton, J. W. McHoskey, and J. Gimbel, "What
price attractiveness? Stereotype and risk factors in suntanning
behavior," in Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 20, pp. 1272-
1300, 1990.
[3] B. A. Banks, R. A. Silverman, R. H. Schwartz, and W. W. Tunnessen,
"Attitudes of teenagers toward sun exposure and sunscreen use," in
Pediatrics, vol. 98, pp. 40-42, 1992.
[4] J. R. Beech, E. Cheehan, and S. Barraclough, "Attitudes toward health
risks and sunbathing behavior" in The Journal of Psychology, vol. 130,
no. 6, pp. 669-677, 1996.
[5] M. A. Ramirez, M. M. Warthan, T. Uchida, and R. F. Wagner Jr., "
Double exposure: Natural and artificial ultraviolet radiation exposure in
beach goers," in Southern Medical Journal, vol. 96, no. 7, pp. 652-655,
2003.
[6] M. R. Leary and J. L. Jones, "The social psychology of tanning and
sunscreen use: Self-presentational motives as a predictor of health risk,"
in Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 23, pp. 1390-1406, 1993.
[7] J. Hillhouse, R. Turrisi, & M. Kastner, "Modeling tanning salon
behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and
The Theory of Planned Behavior," in Health Education Research, vol.
15, no. 4, pp. 405-414, 2000.
[8] R. Kampf, The Bear Handbook. New York City: Harrington Park
Press, 2000.
[9] J. Stossel and G. Brinkley, "Gay sterotypes: Are they true?" [Online}
Available: http://abcnews.go.com
[10] R. Klitzman, "From ÔÇÿmale bonding rituals- to ÔÇÿsuicide Tuesday-: A
qualitative study of issues faced by gay male ecstasy (MDMA) users," in
Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 7-32, 2006.
[11] T. E. Gettleman and J. K. Thompson, "Actual differences and
stereotypical perceptions in body image and eating disturbance: A
comparison of male and female heterosexual and homosexual samples,"
in Sex Roles, vol. 29, no. 7-8, pp. 545-562, 1993.
[12] L. G. Nungesser, Homosexual Acts, Actors, and Identities. New York:
Prager, 1983.
[13] D. E. S. Frable, C. Wortman, & J. Joseph, " Predicting self-esteem, wellbeing,
and distress in a cohort of gay men: The importance of cultural
stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity,"
in Journal of Personality, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 599-624, 1997.
[14] R. Savin-Williams, Gay and Lesbian Youth: Expressions of Identity.
New York: Hemisphere, 1990.
[15] N. A. Rudd and S. A Lennon, "Aesthetics of the body and social
identity," in M. R. DeLong and A. M. Fiore, Eds., Aesthetics of Textiles
and Clothing: Advancing Muliti-disciplinary Perspectives, pp. 163-175.
Monument, CO: ITAA, 1994.
[16] H. G. Pope, Jr., K. A. Phillips, and R. Olivardia, The Adonis Complex:
The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession. New York: The Free Press,
2000.
[17] J. K. Thompson, L. J. Heinberg, M. ALtabe, and S. tantleff-Dunn,
Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image
Disturbance. Washing, DC: APA, 1999.
[18] T. F. Cash, "The treatment of body image disturbances," in J. K.
Thompson, Ed., Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity, pp. 83-
107. Washington, DC: APA, 1996.
[19] M. D. Siever, "Sexual orientation and gender as factors in
socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating
disorders," in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 62,
no. 2, pp. 252-260, 1994.
[20] S. Prentice-Dunn, J. L. Jones, and D. L. Floyd, "Persuasive appeals and
the reduction of skin cancer risk: The roles of appearance concern,
perceived benefits of a tan, and efficacy information," in Journal of
Applies Social Psychology, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 1041-1047, 1997.
[21] G. H. Cohane and H. G. Pope, Jr., "Body image in boys: A review of
the literature," in International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 29, no.
4, pp. 373-379, 2001.
[22] S. J. Lennon, A. Lillethun, and S. S. Buckland, "Attitudes towards social
comparison as a function of self-esteem, idealized appearance, and body
image," in Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, vol. 27,
no. 4, pp. 379-405, 1999.
[23] A. Reilly and N. A. Rudd, "Is internalized homonegativity related to
body image?" in Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, vol.
35, no. 1., pp. 58-73, 2006.
[24] C. S. Koblenzer,"The psychology of sun-exposure and tanning," in
Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 421-428, 1998.
[25] R. Boer, "Skin gods: Circumcising the built male body," in Journal of
Men, masculinities, and Spirituality, vol. 1., no. 1, pp. 35-44, 2007.
[26] B. Keesling, and H. S. Friedman, "Psychosocial factors in sunbathing
and sunscreen use," in Health Psychology, vol. 6, pp. 477-493, 1987.
[27] M. Broadstock, R. Borland, and R. Gason, "Effects of suntan on
judgments of healthiness and attractiveness by adolescents," in Journal
of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 22, 157-172, 1992.
[28] T. Garvin and K. Wilson, "The use of storytelling for understanding
women-s desire to tan: Lessons from the field," in Professional
Geographer, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 269-306, 1999.
[29] L. Wichstrom, "PRecitors of Norwegian adolescents- sunbathing and use
of sun-screen" in Health Psychology, vol. 13, pp. 412-420, 1994.
[30] K. M. Jackson, and L. S. Aiken, "The psychosocial model of sun
protection and sunbathing in young women: The impact of health
beliefs, attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy for sun protection" in Health
Psychology, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 496-478, 2000.
[31] E. Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City,
NY: Doubleday, 1959.
[32] N. A. Rudd and S. A Lennon, "Body image: Linking aesthetics and
social psychology of appearance," in Clothing and Textiles Research
Journal, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 120-133, 2001.
[33] T. A. Brown, T. F. Cash, and P. J. Mikulka, "Attitudinal body image
assessment" Factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire,"
in Journal of Personality Assessment, vol. 55, pp. 134-144, 1990.
[34] T. F. Cash, "Body-image effect: Gestalt versus summing the parts," in
Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 17-18, 1989.
[35] M. Rosenberg, Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books, 1979.
[36] M. Rosenberg, Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
[37] L. Chang, "A comparison of samples and response quality obtained from
RDD telephone survey methodology and Internet survey methodology,"
Ph.D dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 2001.
[38] P. Kellner, "Can online polls produce accurate findings?" in
International Journal of Market Research, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 3-21, 2004.
[39] J. M. Penkala, "Internet vs. access point intercept survey to obtain
stakeholder information," in Human Dimensions of Wildlife, vol. 9, no.
1, pp.69-78, 2004.
[40] D. J. Allen and T. Oleson, "Shame and internalized homonegativity in
gay men," Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 33-43, 1999.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:55199", author = "Andrew Reilly and Nancy A. Rudd", title = "Sun, Salon, and Cosmetic Tanning: Predictors and Motives", abstract = "The appearance management behavior of tanning by gay men is examined through the lens of Impression Formation. The study proposes that body image, self-esteem, and internalized homophobia are connected and affect the motives for engaging in sun, salon, and cosmetic tanning. Motives examined were: to look masculine, to look attractive to (potential) partners, to look attractive in general, to socialize, to meet a peer standard, and for personal satisfaction. Using regression analysis to examine data of 103 gay men who engage in at least one method of tanning, results reveal that components of body image and internalized homophobia–but not self-esteem–are linked to various motives and methods of tanning. These findings support and extend the literature of Impression Formation Theory and provide practitioners in the health and healthrelated fields new avenues to pursue when dealing with diseases related to tanning.
", keywords = "Body image, gay men, tanning.", volume = "2", number = "4", pages = "269-7", }
