Promoting Community Food Security and Empowerment among Somali Bantu Refugees: A Case for Community Kitchen Gardens
African refugees are among the fastest-growing populations in the United States and nearly half of these refugees come from Somalia, many of whom are Somali Bantus, the most marginalized group in Somali society. Yet limited research is available on Somali Bantu refugees. In this paper, Empowerment Theory is used to guide an in-depth exploration of the potential benefits of using community kitchen gardens to increase community food security among Somali Bantu refugees. In addition, recommendations for future research, policy and practice are offered following existing scholarly and grey source literature guidelines as informed by an Empowerment perspective to best meet the needs of this under-researched and underserved yet growing population.
[1] J. Carroll, R. Epstein, K. Fiscella, E. Volpe, K. Diaz, and S. Omar, “Knowledge and beliefs about health promotion and preventative health care among Somali women in the United States,” Health Care for Women International, vol. 8, pp. 360-380, 2007.
[2] C. E. Johnson, S. A. Ali, and M. P. Shipp, M. P., “Building community-based participatory research partnerships with a Somali refugee community,” American Journal Of Preventive Medicine, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. S230-S236, Dec. 2009.
[3] C. L. Patil, C. Hadley, and P. Nahayo, “Unpacking dietary acculturation among new Americans: Results from formative research with African refugees” Journal Of Immigrant & Minority Health, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 342-358, 2009.
[4] R. Coughlan, K., Stam, and L. N. Kingston, “Struggling to start over: Human rights challenges for Somali Bantu refugees in the United States,” The International Journal of Human Rights, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 123-137, 2016.
[5] D. Van Lehman and O. Eno, “The Somali Bantu: Their history and culture,” Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-33, 2003.
[6] International Organization for Migration (IOM) Somali Bantu report, 2002, Retrieved from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/bantureport.pdf B
[7] Z. Ali, Cataclysm: Secrets of the Horn of Africa. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation, 2016.
[8] U.S. Department of State Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. relations with Somalia, 2017, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htmF
[9] Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services (BRYCS), Somali Bantu refugees: Cultural considerations for social service providers, n.d., Retrieved October 22, 2016 from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/SBantu-Service-Considerations.pdf
[10] M. V. Hoehne, “Continuities and changes regarding minorities in Somalia,” Ethnic & Racial Studies, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 792-80, 2015.
[11] R. Bayor, Multicultural America: An encyclopedia of the newest Americans (Kindle Ed.) Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2011.
[12] C. Besteman, “Somali Bantus in a state of refuge,” Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies, vol. 12, pp. 1-33, 2012.
[13] K. Walter, “Gardening, nutrition programs bloom,” Health Progress, pp. 38-43, Apr. 2014.
[14] J. M. Dharod, J. E. Croom and C. G. Sady, “Food insecurity: Its relationship to dietary intake and body weight among Somali refugee women in the United States,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 47-53, Nov. 2013.
[15] M. W. Hamm and A. C. Bellows, “Community food security and nutrition educators,” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 37-43, 2003.
[16] D. T. Remley, A. C. Zubieta, M. C. Lambea, H. M. Quinonez, and C. Talyor, “Spanish- and English-speaking client perceptions of choice food pantries,” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, vol. 5, pp. 120-128, Feb. 2010.
[17] J. P. Derrickson and A. Brown, “Food security stakeholders in Hawai`i: Perceptions of food security monitoring,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 72-84, Apr. 2002.
[18] M. L. Kaiser, “Food security: An ecological-social analysis to promote social development,” Journal Of Community Practice, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 62-79, July 2011.
[19] R. Coughlan and S. E. Hermes, “The palliative role of green space for Somali Bantu women refugees in displacement and resettlement,” Journal Of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 141-155, 2016.
[20] E. R. Smith, ”Putting down roots: A case study of the participation of Somali Bantu refugees in the global gardens refugee farming project in Boise, Idaho,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-95, June 2011.
[21] C. Draper and D. Freedman, D., “Review and analysis of the benefits, purposes, and motivations associated with community gardening in the United States,” Journal Of Community Practice, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 458-492, Dec. 2010.
[22] A. E. Lutz, M. E. Swisher, and M. A. Brennan, “Defining community food security,” IFAS Extension, pp. 1-4, 2007.
[23] C. Gichunge, and F. Kidwaro, “Utamu wa A frika (the sweet taste of Africa): The vegetable garden as part of resettled African refugees' food environment,” Nutrition & Dietetics, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 270-275, 2014.
[24] K. A. Hatfield, “Mommy and me nutrition: A curriculum for refugee women at the mommy and me family literacy program,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-28, Mar. 2012.
[25] D. D. Perkins and M. A. Zimmerman, “Empowerment theory, research, and application,” American Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 569-579, Oct. 1995.
[26] M. Whiteside, “A grounded theory of empowerment in the context of indigenous Australia,” PhD thesis, pp. 1-267, May 2009.
[27] K. K. Havig, “Empowerment for social justice: A grounded theory study of social work field instruction strategies,” Doctoral Dissertation, pp. 1-216, May 2010.
[28] S. Bidwell, “Food security: A review and synthesis of themes from literature,” Programme Area Four Community and Public Health Christchurch, Canterbury: Canterbury District Health Board, pp. 1-33, Aug. 2009.
[29] J. Fridman and L. Lenters, “Kitchen as food hub: Adaptive food systems governance in the city of Toronto,” Local Environment, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 543-556, June 2013.
[30] R. Engler-Stringer, S. Berenbaum, “Collective kitchens in Canada: A review of the literature,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 246-261, 2005.
[31] R. Engler-Stringer, S. Berenbaum, “Exploring food security with collective kitchens participants in three Canadian cities,” Qualitative Health Research, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 75-84, Jan. 2007.
[32] A. Hamelin, C. Mercier, and A. Bedard, “Discrepancies in households and other stakeholders viewpoints on the food security experience: A gap to address,” Health Education Research, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 401-412, June 2010.
[33] H. M. Creed-Kanashiro, R. M. Bartolini, M. N., Fukumoto, T. G. Uribe, R. C. Robert, and M. E. Bentley, M. E., “Formative research to develop a nutrition education intervention to improve dietary iron intake among women and adolescent girls through community kitchens in Lima, Peru,” Journal Of Nutrition, vol. 133, no. 11, pp. 3987S-3991S, Nov. 2003.
[34] T. J. Fano, S. M. Tyminski, and M. A. Flynn, M. A., “Evaluation of a collective kitchen program: Using the Population Health Promotion Model,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice & Research, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 72-80, 2004.
[35] E. Mundel and G. E. Chapman, “A decolonizing approach to health promotion in Canada: The case of the urban aboriginal community kitchen garden project,” Health Promotion International, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 166-173, June 2010.
[36] M. Traverso-Yepez, V. Maddalena, W. Bavington, and C. Donovan, “Community capacity building for health: A critical look at the practical implications of this approach,” Sage Open, vol. 2, pp. 1-12, Aug. 2012.
[37] M. Paratharayil, “Basic versus focused psychosocial interventions for community wellbeing: Lessons following the Nargis cyclone interventions in Burma/Myanmar,” Intervention, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 148-157, 2010.
[38] S. Stevenson, “Edible impact: Food security policy literature review,” Whakatane, New Zealand: Toi Te Ora - Public Health Service, pp. 1-24, 2013.
[39] C. D. Milligan, “A school-based community kitchens program as a strategy for providing food and nutrition-related and psychosocial benefits to inner city families,” Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia, pp. 1-303, Apr. 2010.
[40] S. Eckermann, J. Dawber, H. Yeatman, K. Quinsey and D. Morris, “Evaluating return on investment in a school based health promotion and prevention program: The investment multiplier for the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden National Program,” Social Science & Medicine, pp. 114103-112, Aug. 2014.
[41] L. Gibbs, P. K. Staiger, B. Johnson, K. Block, S. Macfarlane, L. Gold, and... O. Ukoumunne, “Expanding children's food experiences: The impact of a school-based kitchen garden program,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 137-146, Mar. 2013.
[42] J. Henryks, “Changing the menu: Rediscovering ingredients for a successful volunteer experience in school kitchen gardens,” Local Environment, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 569-583, July 2011.
[43] DIVERSEcity Community Resources Society, Food security, Community Kitchen Program, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from http://www.dcrs.ca/services/settlement-services-and-community-programs-department/food-security-program/, 2014.
[44] Global Gardens, Refugee training farm, Retrieved from http://www.globalgardenfarm.org/, 2018.
[45] Maine Snap-Ed, Shop cook eat: 2016 annual report, 2017, Retrieved from https://www.mainesnap-ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/MaineSNAPEd-2016-AnnualReport-ONLINE.pdf.
[46] US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, After three years: Somali Bantus prepare to come to America, Retrieved from http://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/after-three-years- somali-bantus-prepare-come-america, 2002.
[47] R. Perch, “Community garden barriers: A grounded theory study of Gainesville, Florida,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-92, 2011.
[48] P. Mikulec, A. Diduck, B. Froese, and K. MacKenzie, “Legal and policy barriers to community gardening in Winnipeg, Canada,” Canadian Journal of Urban Research, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 69-89, 2013.
[49] Public Health Law and Policy, Land use and planning policies to support community and urban gardening, 2008, Retrieved from http://ucanr.edu/sites/thevictorygrower/files/101571.pdf.
[50] Puget Sound Regional Council, Integrating food policy in comprehensive planning: Strategies and resources for the city of Seattle, 2012, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from http://www.psrc.org/assets/8593/FINAL_seattle_food_comp_plan_082012.pdf.
[1] J. Carroll, R. Epstein, K. Fiscella, E. Volpe, K. Diaz, and S. Omar, “Knowledge and beliefs about health promotion and preventative health care among Somali women in the United States,” Health Care for Women International, vol. 8, pp. 360-380, 2007.
[2] C. E. Johnson, S. A. Ali, and M. P. Shipp, M. P., “Building community-based participatory research partnerships with a Somali refugee community,” American Journal Of Preventive Medicine, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. S230-S236, Dec. 2009.
[3] C. L. Patil, C. Hadley, and P. Nahayo, “Unpacking dietary acculturation among new Americans: Results from formative research with African refugees” Journal Of Immigrant & Minority Health, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 342-358, 2009.
[4] R. Coughlan, K., Stam, and L. N. Kingston, “Struggling to start over: Human rights challenges for Somali Bantu refugees in the United States,” The International Journal of Human Rights, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 123-137, 2016.
[5] D. Van Lehman and O. Eno, “The Somali Bantu: Their history and culture,” Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-33, 2003.
[6] International Organization for Migration (IOM) Somali Bantu report, 2002, Retrieved from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/bantureport.pdf B
[7] Z. Ali, Cataclysm: Secrets of the Horn of Africa. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation, 2016.
[8] U.S. Department of State Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. relations with Somalia, 2017, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htmF
[9] Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services (BRYCS), Somali Bantu refugees: Cultural considerations for social service providers, n.d., Retrieved October 22, 2016 from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/SBantu-Service-Considerations.pdf
[10] M. V. Hoehne, “Continuities and changes regarding minorities in Somalia,” Ethnic & Racial Studies, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 792-80, 2015.
[11] R. Bayor, Multicultural America: An encyclopedia of the newest Americans (Kindle Ed.) Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2011.
[12] C. Besteman, “Somali Bantus in a state of refuge,” Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies, vol. 12, pp. 1-33, 2012.
[13] K. Walter, “Gardening, nutrition programs bloom,” Health Progress, pp. 38-43, Apr. 2014.
[14] J. M. Dharod, J. E. Croom and C. G. Sady, “Food insecurity: Its relationship to dietary intake and body weight among Somali refugee women in the United States,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 47-53, Nov. 2013.
[15] M. W. Hamm and A. C. Bellows, “Community food security and nutrition educators,” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 37-43, 2003.
[16] D. T. Remley, A. C. Zubieta, M. C. Lambea, H. M. Quinonez, and C. Talyor, “Spanish- and English-speaking client perceptions of choice food pantries,” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, vol. 5, pp. 120-128, Feb. 2010.
[17] J. P. Derrickson and A. Brown, “Food security stakeholders in Hawai`i: Perceptions of food security monitoring,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 72-84, Apr. 2002.
[18] M. L. Kaiser, “Food security: An ecological-social analysis to promote social development,” Journal Of Community Practice, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 62-79, July 2011.
[19] R. Coughlan and S. E. Hermes, “The palliative role of green space for Somali Bantu women refugees in displacement and resettlement,” Journal Of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 141-155, 2016.
[20] E. R. Smith, ”Putting down roots: A case study of the participation of Somali Bantu refugees in the global gardens refugee farming project in Boise, Idaho,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-95, June 2011.
[21] C. Draper and D. Freedman, D., “Review and analysis of the benefits, purposes, and motivations associated with community gardening in the United States,” Journal Of Community Practice, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 458-492, Dec. 2010.
[22] A. E. Lutz, M. E. Swisher, and M. A. Brennan, “Defining community food security,” IFAS Extension, pp. 1-4, 2007.
[23] C. Gichunge, and F. Kidwaro, “Utamu wa A frika (the sweet taste of Africa): The vegetable garden as part of resettled African refugees' food environment,” Nutrition & Dietetics, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 270-275, 2014.
[24] K. A. Hatfield, “Mommy and me nutrition: A curriculum for refugee women at the mommy and me family literacy program,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-28, Mar. 2012.
[25] D. D. Perkins and M. A. Zimmerman, “Empowerment theory, research, and application,” American Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 569-579, Oct. 1995.
[26] M. Whiteside, “A grounded theory of empowerment in the context of indigenous Australia,” PhD thesis, pp. 1-267, May 2009.
[27] K. K. Havig, “Empowerment for social justice: A grounded theory study of social work field instruction strategies,” Doctoral Dissertation, pp. 1-216, May 2010.
[28] S. Bidwell, “Food security: A review and synthesis of themes from literature,” Programme Area Four Community and Public Health Christchurch, Canterbury: Canterbury District Health Board, pp. 1-33, Aug. 2009.
[29] J. Fridman and L. Lenters, “Kitchen as food hub: Adaptive food systems governance in the city of Toronto,” Local Environment, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 543-556, June 2013.
[30] R. Engler-Stringer, S. Berenbaum, “Collective kitchens in Canada: A review of the literature,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 246-261, 2005.
[31] R. Engler-Stringer, S. Berenbaum, “Exploring food security with collective kitchens participants in three Canadian cities,” Qualitative Health Research, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 75-84, Jan. 2007.
[32] A. Hamelin, C. Mercier, and A. Bedard, “Discrepancies in households and other stakeholders viewpoints on the food security experience: A gap to address,” Health Education Research, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 401-412, June 2010.
[33] H. M. Creed-Kanashiro, R. M. Bartolini, M. N., Fukumoto, T. G. Uribe, R. C. Robert, and M. E. Bentley, M. E., “Formative research to develop a nutrition education intervention to improve dietary iron intake among women and adolescent girls through community kitchens in Lima, Peru,” Journal Of Nutrition, vol. 133, no. 11, pp. 3987S-3991S, Nov. 2003.
[34] T. J. Fano, S. M. Tyminski, and M. A. Flynn, M. A., “Evaluation of a collective kitchen program: Using the Population Health Promotion Model,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice & Research, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 72-80, 2004.
[35] E. Mundel and G. E. Chapman, “A decolonizing approach to health promotion in Canada: The case of the urban aboriginal community kitchen garden project,” Health Promotion International, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 166-173, June 2010.
[36] M. Traverso-Yepez, V. Maddalena, W. Bavington, and C. Donovan, “Community capacity building for health: A critical look at the practical implications of this approach,” Sage Open, vol. 2, pp. 1-12, Aug. 2012.
[37] M. Paratharayil, “Basic versus focused psychosocial interventions for community wellbeing: Lessons following the Nargis cyclone interventions in Burma/Myanmar,” Intervention, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 148-157, 2010.
[38] S. Stevenson, “Edible impact: Food security policy literature review,” Whakatane, New Zealand: Toi Te Ora - Public Health Service, pp. 1-24, 2013.
[39] C. D. Milligan, “A school-based community kitchens program as a strategy for providing food and nutrition-related and psychosocial benefits to inner city families,” Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia, pp. 1-303, Apr. 2010.
[40] S. Eckermann, J. Dawber, H. Yeatman, K. Quinsey and D. Morris, “Evaluating return on investment in a school based health promotion and prevention program: The investment multiplier for the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden National Program,” Social Science & Medicine, pp. 114103-112, Aug. 2014.
[41] L. Gibbs, P. K. Staiger, B. Johnson, K. Block, S. Macfarlane, L. Gold, and... O. Ukoumunne, “Expanding children's food experiences: The impact of a school-based kitchen garden program,” Journal Of Nutrition Education & Behavior, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 137-146, Mar. 2013.
[42] J. Henryks, “Changing the menu: Rediscovering ingredients for a successful volunteer experience in school kitchen gardens,” Local Environment, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 569-583, July 2011.
[43] DIVERSEcity Community Resources Society, Food security, Community Kitchen Program, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from http://www.dcrs.ca/services/settlement-services-and-community-programs-department/food-security-program/, 2014.
[44] Global Gardens, Refugee training farm, Retrieved from http://www.globalgardenfarm.org/, 2018.
[45] Maine Snap-Ed, Shop cook eat: 2016 annual report, 2017, Retrieved from https://www.mainesnap-ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/MaineSNAPEd-2016-AnnualReport-ONLINE.pdf.
[46] US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, After three years: Somali Bantus prepare to come to America, Retrieved from http://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/after-three-years- somali-bantus-prepare-come-america, 2002.
[47] R. Perch, “Community garden barriers: A grounded theory study of Gainesville, Florida,” Master’s thesis, pp. 1-92, 2011.
[48] P. Mikulec, A. Diduck, B. Froese, and K. MacKenzie, “Legal and policy barriers to community gardening in Winnipeg, Canada,” Canadian Journal of Urban Research, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 69-89, 2013.
[49] Public Health Law and Policy, Land use and planning policies to support community and urban gardening, 2008, Retrieved from http://ucanr.edu/sites/thevictorygrower/files/101571.pdf.
[50] Puget Sound Regional Council, Integrating food policy in comprehensive planning: Strategies and resources for the city of Seattle, 2012, Retrieved May 1, 2017 from http://www.psrc.org/assets/8593/FINAL_seattle_food_comp_plan_082012.pdf.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:77795", author = "Michelle D. Hand and Michelle L. Kaiser", title = "Promoting Community Food Security and Empowerment among Somali Bantu Refugees: A Case for Community Kitchen Gardens", abstract = "African refugees are among the fastest-growing populations in the United States and nearly half of these refugees come from Somalia, many of whom are Somali Bantus, the most marginalized group in Somali society. Yet limited research is available on Somali Bantu refugees. In this paper, Empowerment Theory is used to guide an in-depth exploration of the potential benefits of using community kitchen gardens to increase community food security among Somali Bantu refugees. In addition, recommendations for future research, policy and practice are offered following existing scholarly and grey source literature guidelines as informed by an Empowerment perspective to best meet the needs of this under-researched and underserved yet growing population.", keywords = "Community kitchen gardens, food insecurity, refugees, Somali Bantu.", volume = "12", number = "8", pages = "1074-6", }