Navigation and Guidance System Architectures for Small Unmanned Aircraft Applications
Two multisensor system architectures for navigation
and guidance of small Unmanned Aircraft (UA) are presented and
compared. The main objective of our research is to design a compact,
light and relatively inexpensive system capable of providing the
required navigation performance in all phases of flight of small UA,
with a special focus on precision approach and landing, where Vision
Based Navigation (VBN) techniques can be fully exploited in a
multisensor integrated architecture. Various existing techniques for
VBN are compared and the Appearance-Based Navigation (ABN)
approach is selected for implementation. Feature extraction and
optical flow techniques are employed to estimate flight parameters
such as roll angle, pitch angle, deviation from the runway centreline
and body rates. Additionally, we address the possible synergies of
VBN, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and MEMS-IMU
(Micro-Electromechanical System Inertial Measurement Unit)
sensors, and the use of Aircraft Dynamics Model (ADM) to provide
additional information suitable to compensate for the shortcomings of
VBN and MEMS-IMU sensors in high-dynamics attitude
determination tasks. An Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is developed
to fuse the information provided by the different sensors and to
provide estimates of position, velocity and attitude of the UA
platform in real-time. The key mathematical models describing the
two architectures i.e., VBN-IMU-GNSS (VIG) system and VIGADM
(VIGA) system are introduced. The first architecture uses VBN
and GNSS to augment the MEMS-IMU. The second mode also
includes the ADM to provide augmentation of the attitude channel.
Simulation of these two modes is carried out and the performances of
the two schemes are compared in a small UA integration scheme (i.e.,
AEROSONDE UA platform) exploring a representative cross-section
of this UA operational flight envelope, including high dynamics
manoeuvres and CAT-I to CAT-III precision approach tasks.
Simulation of the first system architecture (i.e., VIG system) shows
that the integrated system can reach position, velocity and attitude
accuracies compatible with the Required Navigation Performance
(RNP) requirements. Simulation of the VIGA system also shows
promising results since the achieved attitude accuracy is higher using
the VBN-IMU-ADM than using VBN-IMU only. A comparison of
VIG and VIGA system is also performed and it shows that the
position and attitude accuracy of the proposed VIG and VIGA
systems are both compatible with the RNP specified in the various
UA flight phases, including precision approach down to CAT-II.
[1] B. Sinopoli, M. Micheli, G. Donato, and T. J. Koo, "Vision based
navigation for unmanned aerial vehicles,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, vol. 2, 2001, pp. 1757 – 1764.
[2] S. Se, D. G. Lowe, and J. J. Little, "Vision based global localisation and
mapping,” IEEE Trans. on Robotics, vol. 21, no.3, pp. 364-375, June
2005.
[3] P. Cui and F. Yue, "Stereo vision-based autonomous navigation for
lunar rovers,” Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An
International Journal, vol. 79, no. 4, pp. 398-405, 2007.
[4] Y. Matsumoto, K. Sakai, M. Inaba, and H. Inoue, "View-based approach
to robot navigation,” in Proc. IEEE/RSJ Conf. on Intelligent Robots and
Systems, vol. 3, Japan, Nov. 2000, pp. 1702-1708.
[5] J. Courbon, Y. Mezouar, N. Guenard, and P. Martinet, "Visual
navigation of a quadrotor aerial vehicle,” in Proc. IEEE/RSJ Conf. on
Intelligent Robots and Systems, Oct. 2009, pp. 5315-5320.
[6] J. Courbon, Y. Mezouar, N. Guenard, and P. Martinet, "Vision-based
navigation of unmanned aerial vehicles,” Control Engineering Practice,
vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 789-799, July 2010.
[7] Z. Chen and S. T. Birchfield, "Qualitative vision-based path following,”
IEEE Trans. on Robotics, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 749-754, June 2009.
[8] A. Remazeilles, and F. Chaumette, "Image-based robot navigation from
an image memory,” Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems, vol.
55, no. 4, 2007.
[9] L. Xinhua and Y. Cao, "Research on the application of the vision-based
autonomous navigation to the landing of the UAV,” in Proc. Fifth
International Symposium on Instrumentation and Control Technology,
vol. 5253, 2003, pp. 385-388.
[10] D. Dusha, L. Mejias, and R. Walker, "Fixed-wing attitude estimation
using temporal tracking of the horizon and optical flow,” Journal of
Field Robotics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 355-372, 2011.
[11] M. A. Olivares-Mendez, I. F. Mondragon, P. Campoy, and C. Martinez,
"Fuzzy controller for UAV-landing task using 3D position visual
estimation,” in Proc. IEEE International Conf. on Fuzzy Systems, 2010.
[12] S. I. Roumeliotis, A. E. Johnson, and J. F. Montgomery, "Augmenting
Inertial Navigation with image-basedestimation,” in Proc. International
Conf. of Robotics & Automation, 2002, pp. 4326-4333.
[13] G. N. Desouza and A. C. Kak, "Vision for mobile robot navigation: a
survey,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol.
24, no. 2, pp. 237 – 267, Feb. 2002.
[14] D. Santosh, S. Achar, and C. V. Jawahar, "Autonomous image-based
exploration for mobile robot navigation,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, 2008, pp. 2717 – 2722.
[15] P. Rives and J. R. Azinheira, "Visual auto-landing of an autonomous
aircraft,” INRIA, no. 4606, 2002.
[16] G. Blanc, Y. Mezouar, and P. Martinet, "Indoor navigation of a wheeled
mobile robot along visual routes,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, 2005, pp. 3354-3359.
[17] G. Rangasamy, "Image sensor fusion algorithms for obstacle detection,
location and avoidance for autonomous navigation of UAVs,” M.Sc.
Thesis, School of Engineering, Cranfield University, 2010.
[18] E. H. Shin, "Estimation technics for low-cost inertial navigation,” PhD
Thesis, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 2005.
[19] A. Angrisano, "GNSS/INS Integration Methods,” PhD Thesis,
Department of Applied Sciences, Parthenope University of Naples, Italy,
2010.
[20] C. Tiberius, Standard positioning service, "Handheld GPS receiver
accuracy,” GPS World, 2003.
[21] W. Ding and J. Wang, "Precise Velocity Estimation with a Stand-Alone
GPS receiver,” The Journal of Navigation, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 311-325,
2011.
[22] D. Titterton and J. Weston, "Strap down Inertial Navigation
Technology,” (2nd Edition), The Institution of Electrical Engineers,
2004.
[23] S. Troy, "Investigation of MEMS Inertial Sensors and Aircraft Dynamic
Models in Global Positioning System Integrity Monitoring for
Approaches with Vertical Guidance,” PhD thesis, Queensland
University of Technology, School of Engineering, 2009.
[24] S. Godha, "Performance Evaluation of Low Cost MEMS-Based IMU
Integrated With GPS for Land Vehicle Navigation Application,” UCGE
Report No. 20239, University of Calgary, Department of Geomatics
Engineering, Alberta, Canada, 2006.
[25] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, H. Jia, and D. Zammit-
Mangion , "Design and Integration of Vision-based Navigation Sensors
for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Navigation and Guidance,” in Proc. SPIE
Photonics Europe Conf., Brussels, Belgium, 2012.
[26] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"GNSS Data Processing for Attitude Determination and Control of
Unmanned Aerial and Space Vehicles,” in Proc. European Navigation
Conf., Gdansk (Poland), April 2012.
[27] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Low-Cost Vision Sensors and Integrated Systems for Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle Navigation and Guidance,” ARPN Journal of Systems and
Software, ISSN: 2222-9833, vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 323-349, 2013.
[28] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, T. Shaid, D.
Zammit-Mangion, and H. Jia, "Low-Cost Navigation and Guidance
Systems for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – Part 1: Vision-Based and
Integrated Sensors,” Annual of Navigation Journal, vol. 19, pp. 71-98,
2012.
[29] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Carrier-Phase GNSS Attitude Determination and Control System for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Applications,”ARPN Journal of Systems and
Software, ISSN: 2222-9833, vol. 2, no. 11, pp.297-322, 2012.
[30] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, D. Zammit-Mangion, and
H. Jia, "Vision Based Sensors and Multisensor Systems for Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles Navigation and Guidance,” in Proc. European
Navigation Conf., Gdansk, Poland, 2012.
[31] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Satellite Navigation Data Processing for Attitude Determination and
Control of Unmanned Air Vehicles,” in Proc. European Navigation
Conf., Gdansk, Poland, 2012.
[32] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, L. RodríguezSalazar, and
D. Zammit-Mangion, "Low-Cost Navigation and Guidance Systems for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – Part 2: Attitude Determination and
Control,” Annual of Navigation, vol. 20, pp. 97-126, 2013.
[33] R. Sabatini, S. Ramasamy, A. Gardi, and L. RodríguezSalazar, "Lowcost
Sensors Data Fusion for Small Size Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Navigation and Guidance,”International Journal of Unmanned Systems
Engineering, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 16-47, 2013.
[34] R. Sabatini, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid, "Carrier-phase GNSS
Attitude Determination and Control for Small UA Applications,”Journal
of Aeronautics and Aerospace Engineering, vol. 2, no. 4, 2013.
[35] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, and S. Ramasamy, "A
Novel Low-cost Navigation and Guidance System for Small Unmanned
Aircraft Applications,” in Proc. WASET International Conf. on
Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering (ICAAE 2013), Melbourne,
Australia, 2013.
[36] ICAO - Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation,
"Aeronautical Telecommunications - Volume 1: Radio Navigation
Aids,” Edition 6, July 2006.
[37] CAA Safety Regulation Group Paper 2003/09, "GPS Integrity and
Potential Impact on Aviation Safety,” 2003.
[38] RMIT University, "Sky's the limit,”2013, Available online at:
http://rmit.com.au/browse;ID=wcga2pa6sovqz. [Accessed 9th April,
2014].
[39] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A Novel GNSS Integrity
Augmentation System for Civil and Military Aircraft,” International
Journal of Mechanical, Industrial Science and Engineering, vol. 7, no.
12, pp. 1433-1449. International Science Index 84, 2013.
[40] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A New Avionics Based GNSS
Integrity Augmentation System: Part 2 – Integrity Flags,” Journal of
Navigation, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 511-522, 2013.
[41] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A New Avionics Based GNSS
Integrity Augmentation System: Part 1 – Fundamentals,” Journal of
Navigation, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 363-383, 2013.
[42] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "Avionics Based GNSS Integrity
Augmentation for Mission- and Safety-Critical Applications,” in Proc.
25th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the
Institute of Navigation: ION GNSS-2012, Nashville, Tennessee,
September 2012.
[1] B. Sinopoli, M. Micheli, G. Donato, and T. J. Koo, "Vision based
navigation for unmanned aerial vehicles,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, vol. 2, 2001, pp. 1757 – 1764.
[2] S. Se, D. G. Lowe, and J. J. Little, "Vision based global localisation and
mapping,” IEEE Trans. on Robotics, vol. 21, no.3, pp. 364-375, June
2005.
[3] P. Cui and F. Yue, "Stereo vision-based autonomous navigation for
lunar rovers,” Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An
International Journal, vol. 79, no. 4, pp. 398-405, 2007.
[4] Y. Matsumoto, K. Sakai, M. Inaba, and H. Inoue, "View-based approach
to robot navigation,” in Proc. IEEE/RSJ Conf. on Intelligent Robots and
Systems, vol. 3, Japan, Nov. 2000, pp. 1702-1708.
[5] J. Courbon, Y. Mezouar, N. Guenard, and P. Martinet, "Visual
navigation of a quadrotor aerial vehicle,” in Proc. IEEE/RSJ Conf. on
Intelligent Robots and Systems, Oct. 2009, pp. 5315-5320.
[6] J. Courbon, Y. Mezouar, N. Guenard, and P. Martinet, "Vision-based
navigation of unmanned aerial vehicles,” Control Engineering Practice,
vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 789-799, July 2010.
[7] Z. Chen and S. T. Birchfield, "Qualitative vision-based path following,”
IEEE Trans. on Robotics, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 749-754, June 2009.
[8] A. Remazeilles, and F. Chaumette, "Image-based robot navigation from
an image memory,” Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems, vol.
55, no. 4, 2007.
[9] L. Xinhua and Y. Cao, "Research on the application of the vision-based
autonomous navigation to the landing of the UAV,” in Proc. Fifth
International Symposium on Instrumentation and Control Technology,
vol. 5253, 2003, pp. 385-388.
[10] D. Dusha, L. Mejias, and R. Walker, "Fixed-wing attitude estimation
using temporal tracking of the horizon and optical flow,” Journal of
Field Robotics, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 355-372, 2011.
[11] M. A. Olivares-Mendez, I. F. Mondragon, P. Campoy, and C. Martinez,
"Fuzzy controller for UAV-landing task using 3D position visual
estimation,” in Proc. IEEE International Conf. on Fuzzy Systems, 2010.
[12] S. I. Roumeliotis, A. E. Johnson, and J. F. Montgomery, "Augmenting
Inertial Navigation with image-basedestimation,” in Proc. International
Conf. of Robotics & Automation, 2002, pp. 4326-4333.
[13] G. N. Desouza and A. C. Kak, "Vision for mobile robot navigation: a
survey,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol.
24, no. 2, pp. 237 – 267, Feb. 2002.
[14] D. Santosh, S. Achar, and C. V. Jawahar, "Autonomous image-based
exploration for mobile robot navigation,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, 2008, pp. 2717 – 2722.
[15] P. Rives and J. R. Azinheira, "Visual auto-landing of an autonomous
aircraft,” INRIA, no. 4606, 2002.
[16] G. Blanc, Y. Mezouar, and P. Martinet, "Indoor navigation of a wheeled
mobile robot along visual routes,” in Proc. International Conf. of
Robotics & Automation, 2005, pp. 3354-3359.
[17] G. Rangasamy, "Image sensor fusion algorithms for obstacle detection,
location and avoidance for autonomous navigation of UAVs,” M.Sc.
Thesis, School of Engineering, Cranfield University, 2010.
[18] E. H. Shin, "Estimation technics for low-cost inertial navigation,” PhD
Thesis, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 2005.
[19] A. Angrisano, "GNSS/INS Integration Methods,” PhD Thesis,
Department of Applied Sciences, Parthenope University of Naples, Italy,
2010.
[20] C. Tiberius, Standard positioning service, "Handheld GPS receiver
accuracy,” GPS World, 2003.
[21] W. Ding and J. Wang, "Precise Velocity Estimation with a Stand-Alone
GPS receiver,” The Journal of Navigation, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 311-325,
2011.
[22] D. Titterton and J. Weston, "Strap down Inertial Navigation
Technology,” (2nd Edition), The Institution of Electrical Engineers,
2004.
[23] S. Troy, "Investigation of MEMS Inertial Sensors and Aircraft Dynamic
Models in Global Positioning System Integrity Monitoring for
Approaches with Vertical Guidance,” PhD thesis, Queensland
University of Technology, School of Engineering, 2009.
[24] S. Godha, "Performance Evaluation of Low Cost MEMS-Based IMU
Integrated With GPS for Land Vehicle Navigation Application,” UCGE
Report No. 20239, University of Calgary, Department of Geomatics
Engineering, Alberta, Canada, 2006.
[25] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, H. Jia, and D. Zammit-
Mangion , "Design and Integration of Vision-based Navigation Sensors
for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Navigation and Guidance,” in Proc. SPIE
Photonics Europe Conf., Brussels, Belgium, 2012.
[26] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"GNSS Data Processing for Attitude Determination and Control of
Unmanned Aerial and Space Vehicles,” in Proc. European Navigation
Conf., Gdansk (Poland), April 2012.
[27] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Low-Cost Vision Sensors and Integrated Systems for Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle Navigation and Guidance,” ARPN Journal of Systems and
Software, ISSN: 2222-9833, vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 323-349, 2013.
[28] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, T. Shaid, D.
Zammit-Mangion, and H. Jia, "Low-Cost Navigation and Guidance
Systems for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – Part 1: Vision-Based and
Integrated Sensors,” Annual of Navigation Journal, vol. 19, pp. 71-98,
2012.
[29] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Carrier-Phase GNSS Attitude Determination and Control System for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Applications,”ARPN Journal of Systems and
Software, ISSN: 2222-9833, vol. 2, no. 11, pp.297-322, 2012.
[30] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, D. Zammit-Mangion, and
H. Jia, "Vision Based Sensors and Multisensor Systems for Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles Navigation and Guidance,” in Proc. European
Navigation Conf., Gdansk, Poland, 2012.
[31] R. Sabatini, L. RodríguezSalazar, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid,
"Satellite Navigation Data Processing for Attitude Determination and
Control of Unmanned Air Vehicles,” in Proc. European Navigation
Conf., Gdansk, Poland, 2012.
[32] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, L. RodríguezSalazar, and
D. Zammit-Mangion, "Low-Cost Navigation and Guidance Systems for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – Part 2: Attitude Determination and
Control,” Annual of Navigation, vol. 20, pp. 97-126, 2013.
[33] R. Sabatini, S. Ramasamy, A. Gardi, and L. RodríguezSalazar, "Lowcost
Sensors Data Fusion for Small Size Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Navigation and Guidance,”International Journal of Unmanned Systems
Engineering, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 16-47, 2013.
[34] R. Sabatini, A. Kaharkar, C. Bartel, and T. Shaid, "Carrier-phase GNSS
Attitude Determination and Control for Small UA Applications,”Journal
of Aeronautics and Aerospace Engineering, vol. 2, no. 4, 2013.
[35] R. Sabatini, C. Bartel, A. Kaharkar, T. Shaid, and S. Ramasamy, "A
Novel Low-cost Navigation and Guidance System for Small Unmanned
Aircraft Applications,” in Proc. WASET International Conf. on
Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering (ICAAE 2013), Melbourne,
Australia, 2013.
[36] ICAO - Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation,
"Aeronautical Telecommunications - Volume 1: Radio Navigation
Aids,” Edition 6, July 2006.
[37] CAA Safety Regulation Group Paper 2003/09, "GPS Integrity and
Potential Impact on Aviation Safety,” 2003.
[38] RMIT University, "Sky's the limit,”2013, Available online at:
http://rmit.com.au/browse;ID=wcga2pa6sovqz. [Accessed 9th April,
2014].
[39] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A Novel GNSS Integrity
Augmentation System for Civil and Military Aircraft,” International
Journal of Mechanical, Industrial Science and Engineering, vol. 7, no.
12, pp. 1433-1449. International Science Index 84, 2013.
[40] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A New Avionics Based GNSS
Integrity Augmentation System: Part 2 – Integrity Flags,” Journal of
Navigation, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 511-522, 2013.
[41] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "A New Avionics Based GNSS
Integrity Augmentation System: Part 1 – Fundamentals,” Journal of
Navigation, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 363-383, 2013.
[42] R. Sabatini, T. Moore, and C. Hill, "Avionics Based GNSS Integrity
Augmentation for Mission- and Safety-Critical Applications,” in Proc.
25th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the
Institute of Navigation: ION GNSS-2012, Nashville, Tennessee,
September 2012.
@article{"International Journal of Mechanical, Industrial and Aerospace Sciences:67053", author = "Roberto Sabatini and Celia Bartel and Anish Kaharkar and Tesheen Shaid and Subramanian Ramasamy", title = "Navigation and Guidance System Architectures for Small Unmanned Aircraft Applications", abstract = "Two multisensor system architectures for navigation
and guidance of small Unmanned Aircraft (UA) are presented and
compared. The main objective of our research is to design a compact,
light and relatively inexpensive system capable of providing the
required navigation performance in all phases of flight of small UA,
with a special focus on precision approach and landing, where Vision
Based Navigation (VBN) techniques can be fully exploited in a
multisensor integrated architecture. Various existing techniques for
VBN are compared and the Appearance-Based Navigation (ABN)
approach is selected for implementation. Feature extraction and
optical flow techniques are employed to estimate flight parameters
such as roll angle, pitch angle, deviation from the runway centreline
and body rates. Additionally, we address the possible synergies of
VBN, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and MEMS-IMU
(Micro-Electromechanical System Inertial Measurement Unit)
sensors, and the use of Aircraft Dynamics Model (ADM) to provide
additional information suitable to compensate for the shortcomings of
VBN and MEMS-IMU sensors in high-dynamics attitude
determination tasks. An Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is developed
to fuse the information provided by the different sensors and to
provide estimates of position, velocity and attitude of the UA
platform in real-time. The key mathematical models describing the
two architectures i.e., VBN-IMU-GNSS (VIG) system and VIGADM
(VIGA) system are introduced. The first architecture uses VBN
and GNSS to augment the MEMS-IMU. The second mode also
includes the ADM to provide augmentation of the attitude channel.
Simulation of these two modes is carried out and the performances of
the two schemes are compared in a small UA integration scheme (i.e.,
AEROSONDE UA platform) exploring a representative cross-section
of this UA operational flight envelope, including high dynamics
manoeuvres and CAT-I to CAT-III precision approach tasks.
Simulation of the first system architecture (i.e., VIG system) shows
that the integrated system can reach position, velocity and attitude
accuracies compatible with the Required Navigation Performance
(RNP) requirements. Simulation of the VIGA system also shows
promising results since the achieved attitude accuracy is higher using
the VBN-IMU-ADM than using VBN-IMU only. A comparison of
VIG and VIGA system is also performed and it shows that the
position and attitude accuracy of the proposed VIG and VIGA
systems are both compatible with the RNP specified in the various
UA flight phases, including precision approach down to CAT-II.
", keywords = "Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Lowcost
Navigation Sensors, MEMS Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU),
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Vision Based Navigation.", volume = "8", number = "4", pages = "758-20", }
