Legal Theories Underpinning Access to Justice for Victims of Sexual Violence in Refugee Camps in Africa
Legal theory has been referred to as the explanation of why things do or do not happen. It also describes situations and why they ensue. It provides a normative framework by which things are regulated and a foundation for the establishment of legal mechanisms/institutions that can bring about a desired change in a society. Furthermore, it offers recommendations in resolving practical problems and describes what the law is, what the law ought to be and defines the legal landscape generally. Some legal theories provide a universal standard, e.g. human rights, while others are capable of organizing and streamlining the collective use, and, by extension, bring order to society. Legal theory is used to explain how the world works and how it does not work. This paper will argue for the application of the principles of legal theory in the achievement of access to justice for female victims of sexual violence in refugee camps in Africa through the analysis of legal theories underpinning the access to justice for these women. It is a known fact that female refugees in camps in Africa often experience some form of sexual violation. The perpetrators of these incidents may never be apprehended, prosecuted, convicted or sentenced. Where prosecution does occur, the perpetrators are either acquitted as a result of poor investigation, inept prosecution, a lack of evidence, or the case may be dismissed owing to tardiness on the part of the prosecutor, which accounts for the culture of impunity in refugee camps. In other words, victims do not have access to the justice that could ameliorate the plight of the victims. There is, thus, a need for a legal framework that will facilitate access to justice for these victims. This paper will start with an introduction, and be followed by the definition of legal theory, its functions and its application in law. Secondly, it will provide a brief explanation of the problems faced by female refugees who are victims of sexual violence in refugee camps in Africa. Thirdly, it will embark on an analysis of theories which will be a help to an understanding of the precarious situation of female refugees, why they are violated, the need for access to justice for these victims, and the principles of legal theory in its usefulness in resolving access to justice for these victims.
[1] C. W. Mwangi, Women refugees and sexual violence in Kakuma Camp, Kenya; Invisible rights, justice, protracted Protection and human insecurity. A Research Paper presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for obtaining the degree of Masters of Arts in Development Studies, Specialization: Human Rights Development and Social Justice. International Institute of social studies, The Hague, The Netherlands, 2012 Unpublished, pp. 7, 21, 39.
[2] USAID (2008) 'Refugee Knowledge and Attitudes on Gender-Based Violence', Extending Service Delivery Project (ESD):3-12, http://www.esdproj.org/site/DocServer/Refugees_GBV_Assessment_Report_Kakuma.pdf?docID=2242, (accessed 24/02 /2016).
[3] UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 89.
[4] United Nations Treaty Collections, “Convention relating to the Status of Refugees,” Geneva, 28 July 1951, chapter V, Refugees and Stateless Persons, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, status of signatories as at: 07-03-2016 05:00:46 EDT, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20V/V-2.en.pdf, (accessed 08/03/2016).
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[6] IOW, “UN lives on the Dark Side II, refugee sexual abuses, 2005f,” 2005-2008 pp. 5 of 13, http://www.iowatch.org/ds_sexualabuses.pdf (accessed 11/03/2015).
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[8] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response, May 2003, pp. 23, 24, http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/gl_sgbv03.pdf, (accessed 08/03/2016).
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[1] C. W. Mwangi, Women refugees and sexual violence in Kakuma Camp, Kenya; Invisible rights, justice, protracted Protection and human insecurity. A Research Paper presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for obtaining the degree of Masters of Arts in Development Studies, Specialization: Human Rights Development and Social Justice. International Institute of social studies, The Hague, The Netherlands, 2012 Unpublished, pp. 7, 21, 39.
[2] USAID (2008) 'Refugee Knowledge and Attitudes on Gender-Based Violence', Extending Service Delivery Project (ESD):3-12, http://www.esdproj.org/site/DocServer/Refugees_GBV_Assessment_Report_Kakuma.pdf?docID=2242, (accessed 24/02 /2016).
[3] UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 89.
[4] United Nations Treaty Collections, “Convention relating to the Status of Refugees,” Geneva, 28 July 1951, chapter V, Refugees and Stateless Persons, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, status of signatories as at: 07-03-2016 05:00:46 EDT, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20V/V-2.en.pdf, (accessed 08/03/2016).
[5] R. Mabuwa, “Seeking Protection: Addressing Sexual and Domestic Violence in Tanzania's Refugee Camps,” Human Right Watch, 2000, pp. 40, 46-47, 50.
[6] IOW, “UN lives on the Dark Side II, refugee sexual abuses, 2005f,” 2005-2008 pp. 5 of 13, http://www.iowatch.org/ds_sexualabuses.pdf (accessed 11/03/2015).
[7] J. Ramji-Nogales, “Questioning Hierarchies of Ham: Women Forced Migration and International Criminal Law,” Intentional Criminal Law Review, Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection, 2011, pp. 820, 821.
[8] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response, May 2003, pp. 23, 24, http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/gl_sgbv03.pdf, (accessed 08/03/2016).
[9] E. Holzer, “What Happens to Law in a Refugee Camp?” Law & Society Review, Volume 47, Number 4, 2013, pp. 838, 858-860.
[10] L.J. Siegel, B.C. Welsh, Juvenile delinquencies: theory, practice and law, 11th edition, Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. 2012, pp. 78.
[11] L. J. Siegel Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies Part Two, 12th edition, Cengage Learning, 2016, pp.93.
[12] H. Cairns “Legal Theory” 9 Rutgers L. Rev. pp.388, 1954-1955.
[13] W. Friedmann, Legal Theory, Stevens and Sons Limited, 5th Ed, 1967, pp.3- 4.
[14] M. Koss, C. Gidycs and N. Winniewski, “The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and victimization in a national sample of education student.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 55, 1987, 162-170
[15] N. Malamuth, “The confidence of sexual aggression: feminist and evolutionary perspective,” in Buss and Malamuth (ed.) Sex Power and Conflict: evolutionary and Feminists perspective. N.Y: Oxford press
[16] S. Brownmiller, “Against our will,” NY: Simon and Scchuster, 1975, pp16, chapter8.
[17] Shannon, “Theories of Sexual Coercion: Evolutionary, Feminist and Biosocial Perspective,” 2004. ww.pandys.org/theoriescoercion.pdf (accessed 04/11/2015).
[18] UNHCR and Save the Children-UK, “Note for Implementing and Operational Partners,” 2002, http://www.unhcr.org/3c7cf89a4.html, (accessed 29/12/2015)
[19] R. B Murray “Sex for Food in Refugee Economy: Human Rights Implications and Accountability” Geo. Immigr.14 L.J. 1999-2000, 987.
[20] A. Farmer, “Refugee Responses, State-like Behavior and Accountability for Human Rights Violations: A Case Study of Sexual Violence in Guinea’s Refugee Camps” Yale Human Rights & Development L. J Vol 9, 2006, pp.44.
[21] F. E. Devine, “Cesare Beccaria and the Theoretical Foundation of Modern Penal Jurisprudence,” 7 New Eng. J. on Prison L. 1982, pp. 8.
[22] L.J. Siegel, Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies, tenth edition, Wadsworth, Cengage learning, 2010, pp96.
[23] Clarke and Ronald (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Study, Second Edition, Harrow and Heston Publishers, 1997, 9-10.
[24] S. K. Gul, “An Evaluation of Rational Choice Theory in Criminology and, Sociology and Applied Science,” GAU J. Soc. & Appl. Sci., 4(8), 2009, 36-44.
[25] R. Keel, “The Evolution of Classical Theory: Rational Choice, Deterrence, Incapacitation and Just Desert,” 1997 http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/200/ratchoc.html, (accessed 11/0/ 2015).
[26] R. Cox, “Lies, damned lies and rational choice analysis,” in Sapiro and Rogers (ed.) (2004) Problems and Methods in the Study of Politics, Cambridge University press, 2004, pp.171.
[27] B. Kaufman, “Emotional arousal as a source of bounded rationality.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 38, 1998, pp.136.
[28] A. Stevenson (Ed.), Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd Ed. 2010.
[29] C. Fleck, “The Rule of Law,” LexisNexis, 2016 http://www.lexisnexis.co.za/ruleoflaw/rule-of-law.aspx# Citizens, Free Access, (accessed 11/01/2016)
[30] Secretary-General, United Nations, “The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies,” Report of the Secretary-General, 2004, S/2004/616, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN /N04/395/29/ PDF/N0439529.pdf?Open Element (accessed 11/01/2016).
[31] S. Rutherford, “Lex, rex: The law and the Prince,” a Dispute for the just prerogative of king and People, Containing the reasons and causes of the defensive wars of the kingdom of Scotland, and of their expedition for the ayd and help of their brethren of England, 1644, pp. 237
[32] A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 10th Ed. 1960, pp.202-203.
[33] M. L. Principe “Albert Venn Dicey and the Principles of the Rule of Law: Is Justice Blind? A Comparative Analysis of the United States and Great Britain,” Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review, 2000, pp. 357.
[34] R. Dworkin, “Political Judges and the Rule of Law,” 64, Proceedings of the British Academy, 1978, pp. 259, 262.
[35] T.R.S. Allan, Law, Liberty, and Justice: The Legal Foundations of British Constitutionalism, Oxford; Oxford University Press, 1993, pp.21-22.
[36] J. C. Ribot and N.L. Peluso “A Theory of Access” Rural Sociology, Vol. 68, No. 2, 2003, pp. 153-156.
[37] A. De Janvry, J. Patteau, G. Gordillo and E. Sadoulet “Access to Land and Policy Reforms.” in J-P. Patteau, A. De Janvry, G. Gordillo and E. Sadoulet (eds.) Access to Land, Rural Poverty and Public Action, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 1–27.
[38] M. Weber, (ed.) Economy and Society. Berkeley: University of California Press. Weber, 1978, pp. 53.
[39] S. Lukes, Power, New York: New York University Press, 1986, 3.
[40] M. Foucault, “On Governmentality, Lecture at the College de France” in G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Mille (ed.) The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1978a, 87–104.
[41] C. B. Macpherson “The Meaning of Property” in C.B. Macpherson, (ed.) Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978a, cuapter1, pp. 2.
[42] Cambridge Dictionaries online, http://dictionary . cambridge.org/dictionary/english/justice, (accessed 08/12/2012).
[43] B.A. Garner, Black's Law Dictionary Free 2nd Ed. and The Law Dictionary, http://thelawdictionary.org/justice/, (accessed 08/12/2015)
[44] W. P. Pomerleau “Western Theories of Justice,” Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource, 2013, http://www.iep.utm.edu/justwest/, (accessed 11/03/2016).
[45] D. Ross, Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics, translated by and revised by Ackrill and Urmson, Oxford University Press, 1894, pp.106-109.
[46] M. Cavadino and J. Diggnan, The Penal System: An Introduction, London: Sage, 2nd Ed. 1997, pp. 39.
[47] H. Bedau, “Retribution and theory of Punishment,” Journal of Philosophy, Inc. Vol.75, no 1, 1978, pp. 603, 604,
[48] R. Nozick, Philosophical Explanation, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1981, pp. 366.
[49] A. Duff, “Legal Punishment” (Positive Retribution and the meaning of Desert) Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-punishment/ (accessed 01/03/2016).
[50] H.L.A. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp. 231.
[51] H.L.A. Hart, “The Presidential Address: Prolegomenon on to the Principle of Punishment.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, Vol. 60 1959 - 1960, pp. 1-26.
[52] J. Rachel, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, pp. 201.
[53] L. J. Laplante, “The plural justice aims of reparations” in S. Buckley-Zistel, T. K. Beck, C. Braun and F. Meith (Ed.) Transitional Justice Theories, 1st Ed. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, a Glass House Book, 2014, pp.70.
[54] I. Englard Corrective and Distributive Justice from Aristotle to Modern Times, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009.
[55] M. A. Pauley. “The Jurisprudence of Crime and Punishment from Plato to Hegel,” American Journal of Jurisprudence, 1994, 39(1) pp.97-152.
[56] M. Ostwald (Trans), Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics, NY Pearson, 1962, pp. 120-123.
[57] I. Bywater (ed.) (trans.) Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1894, pp. 114-115.
[58] R. A. Posner, “The Concept of Corrective Justice in Recent Theories of Tort Law” The Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1981, p p.189.
[59] D. Ross (trans.) Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, rev. ed. 1980, pp. 111-112., 115,117
[60] J. L. Coleman, “The Practice of Corrective Justice,” in D.G. Owen (ed.) Philosophical Foundation of Tort Law, Oxford University Press, 1995, pp.53.
[61] M. Roht-Ariaza “Punishment Redress and Pardon: Theoretical and Psychological Approach,” in M. Roht-Ariaza (ed.) Immunity and Human Rights in International Law, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004a, pp. 157-158.
[62] United Nations, “Basic Principles and Guideline on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law.” UN GA/RES/60/147, GAOR, 60th session Supp 49 Vol 1, 2005.
[63] C. Biddle, “Ayn Rand’s Theory of Rights: The Moral Foundation of a Free Society”, The Objective Standard, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2011.
[64] L. Wenar, “Rights”, The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, fall 2015 Edition, N. E. Zalta (ed.) http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2015/entries/rights/ (accessed 10/12/2015).
[65] W.N. Hohfield, Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning, 26 Yale Law Journal 710 (1917), (1917). Faculty Scholarship Series. Paper 4378. http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/4378, (accessed 11/03/2016)
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@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:73458", author = "O. E. Eberechi and G. P. Stevens", title = "Legal Theories Underpinning Access to Justice for Victims of Sexual Violence in Refugee Camps in Africa", abstract = "Legal theory has been referred to as the explanation of why things do or do not happen. It also describes situations and why they ensue. It provides a normative framework by which things are regulated and a foundation for the establishment of legal mechanisms/institutions that can bring about a desired change in a society. Furthermore, it offers recommendations in resolving practical problems and describes what the law is, what the law ought to be and defines the legal landscape generally. Some legal theories provide a universal standard, e.g. human rights, while others are capable of organizing and streamlining the collective use, and, by extension, bring order to society. Legal theory is used to explain how the world works and how it does not work. This paper will argue for the application of the principles of legal theory in the achievement of access to justice for female victims of sexual violence in refugee camps in Africa through the analysis of legal theories underpinning the access to justice for these women. It is a known fact that female refugees in camps in Africa often experience some form of sexual violation. The perpetrators of these incidents may never be apprehended, prosecuted, convicted or sentenced. Where prosecution does occur, the perpetrators are either acquitted as a result of poor investigation, inept prosecution, a lack of evidence, or the case may be dismissed owing to tardiness on the part of the prosecutor, which accounts for the culture of impunity in refugee camps. In other words, victims do not have access to the justice that could ameliorate the plight of the victims. There is, thus, a need for a legal framework that will facilitate access to justice for these victims. This paper will start with an introduction, and be followed by the definition of legal theory, its functions and its application in law. Secondly, it will provide a brief explanation of the problems faced by female refugees who are victims of sexual violence in refugee camps in Africa. Thirdly, it will embark on an analysis of theories which will be a help to an understanding of the precarious situation of female refugees, why they are violated, the need for access to justice for these victims, and the principles of legal theory in its usefulness in resolving access to justice for these victims.", keywords = "Access to justice, underpinning legal theory, refugee, sexual violence.", volume = "10", number = "8", pages = "2623-11", }
