Human Settlement, Land Management and Health in Sub Saharan Cities

An epidemiological cross sectional study was undertaken in Yaoundé in 2002 and updated in 2005. Focused on health within the city, the objectives were to measure diarrheal prevalence and to identify the risk factors associated with them. Results of microbiological examinations have revealed an urban average prevalence rate of 14.5%. Access to basic services in the living environment appears to be an important risk factor for diarrheas. Statistical and spatial analyses conducted have revealed that prevalence of diarrheal diseases vary among the two main types of settlement (informal and planned). More importantly, this study shows that, diarrhea prevalence rates (notably bacterial and parasitic diarrheas) vary according to the sub- category of settlements. The study draws a number of theoretical and policy implications for researchers and policy decision makers.




References:
[1] United Nations. 1995. World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994
Revision. New York.
[2] United Nations Population Fund (UNPF). 2007. State of world
population 2007- Unleashing the potential of urban growth. [Accessed
[3] UN-Habitat. 2004. The State of the World's Cities, globalization and
Urban Culture. UN-Habitat/Earthscan and Unicef.
[4] R. Sietchiping, Geographic information systems and cellular
automatabased model of informal settlement growth, PhD Dissertation,
School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies,
University of Melbourne, 2003.
[5] S.A. Bashir, ÔÇÿ-Home is where the harm is: inadequate housing as a
public health crisis--, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 92, no 5,
pp. 733-738, 2002.
[6] C. Peralta. 2006. Rapid urban growth threatens African cities.
[Accessed March 28, 2008 at http://wwww.planetizen.com.
[7] Communauté Urbaine de Yaoundé, Yaoundé, une ville en plein essor.
Yaoundé: Imprimerie nationale, 2002.
[8] H.B. Nguendo Yongsi .2000. Urbanization and communicable diseases
in Cameroon. University of Paris X-France, Msc thesis.
[9] S.A. Esrey, ÔÇÿ-Water, waste, and well-being: a multicountry study--,
American Journal of Epidemiology no143, pp 608-623, 1996.
[10] H. Frumkin, ÔÇÿ-Cities, suburbs, and urban sprawl: their impact on
health--, in N. Freudenberg, S. Galea, D. Vlahov (eds), Cities and the
health of the public, Vanderbilt university press, pp. 143-175, 2006.
[11] J. Hardoy, S. Cairncross, D. Satterthwaite. 1990. The Poor Die
Young. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
[12] T. Harpham, M. Tanner, Urban health in developing countries: progress
and prospects, Earthscan Publications, London, 1995.
[13] S.Cairncross, D.O.Neill, A. McCOY, Health, environment and the
burden of disease: a guidance note, Department for International
Development, 2003.
[14] UN-HABITAT, Meeting development goals in small urban centers:
Water and sanitation in the world-s cities, Earthscan Publication,
London 2006.
[15] A. Pruss, D. Kay , J. Fewtrell, J. Bartram, ÔÇÿ-Estimating the burden of
disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at the global level--,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 110, no 5, pp. 537-542, 2002.
[16] S. Cairncross, ÔÇÿ-Health Impacts in Developing Countries: New evidence
and new prospects--, Journal of the Institution of Water and
Environmental Management, vol. 4, pp. 6571 - 6577, 1990.
[17] M. Black, B. Fawcett, The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global
Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan publications, 2008.
[18] H.B. Nguendo Yongsi, B.K. Delali Dovie. 2006. ÔÇÿDiarrheal diseases in
the history of public health-, Archives of Medical Research, 38: 159-
163.
[19] J. K.Tumwine, J. Thompson, M. Katua-Katua, M. Muiwajuzi, I. Johnson
Porras, Diarrhea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and
hygiene behavior in East Africa, Trop Med Int Health, vol. 7, no 9, pp.
750-756, 2002.
[20] I. Kawachi, L.F. Berkman, ÔÇÿ-Neighbourhoods and Health--, New York:
Oxford University Press Inc, 2003.
[21] T.A. Laveist, J. M. Wallace, ÔÇÿ-Health risk and inequitable distribution of
liquor stores in African American neighbourhood--, Social Science and
Medicine, vol. 51, pp. 613-617, 2000.
[22] A. Duany, E. Plater-Zyberk, R. Alminana. 2003. New Civic Art:
Elements of Town Planning. Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.
[23] World Health Organization. 2007. The world health report 2007. A safer
future.[Accessed 25th August at
http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/index.html].
[24] A.H. Baqui, R.E. Black, M. Yunus, A.R. Hoque, H.R. Chowdhury, R.B.
Sack. 1991. -Methodological issues in diarrhoeal disease epidemiology:
definition of diarrhoeal episodes-, International Journal of
Epidemiology 20:1057-1063.
[25] J. Gascon, M. Vargas, D. Schellenbergerg and al., ÔÇÿ-Diarrhoea in
children under 5 years of age from Ifakara,Tanzania: a case-control
study--, J. Clin. Microbiol. Vol. 38, pp 4459-4462, 2000.
[26] K. Molbak, N. Wested, N. Hjlying and al., ÔÇÿ-The aetiology of early
childhood diarrhoea: a community study from Guinea-Bissau--, J. Inf.
Dis., vol. 169, pp. 581-587, 1994.
[27] National Institute of Statistics. (2007) CAVIE : Enquête sur le cadre de
vie des populations de Yaoundé et Douala. [Accessed 27th August at
http://www.statistics-cameroon.org].
[28] E. Mveng. 1963. Histoire du Cameroun. Paris : Présence Africaine
[29] J.M. Essomba. 1992. Civilisation du fer et sociétés en Afrique
centrale. Paris: l-Harmattan.
[30] G.C. Medou. 1973. Yaoundé ├á l-époque coloniale (1887-1960). Essai de
monographie urbaine. University of Yaoundé, department of geography,
MA thesis.
[31] F.P. Akongwie. 1999. Spontaneous settlements in marshy areas around
Yaoundé: case study of Mfandena quarters. The University of Yaoundé
I, department of geography, Bachelor degree dissertation.
[32] E. Tazo. 1988. Le tissu spontané de Yaoundé. Dynamique spatiale,
dégradation de l-environnement urbain et recherche de solutions. Liège :
Département des sciences géographiques, Doctorat NR.
[33] R.K. Mukoro. 1990. Housing in Biyem Assi I & II. University of
Yaoundé, Department of geography, DIPES II Dissertation.
[34] R.E. Stren, R. W.Rodney. 1998. African Cities in Crisis: Managing
Urban Growth. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
[35] G. Salem. ÔÇÿLes Problèmes de santé dans les villes : une urgence
négligée-, Médecine Tropicale 59 : 31-33, 1999.
[36] G. Mcgranaham, J. Songsore, ÔÇÿ-Wealth, Health and the Urban
Household--. Environment, vol. 36, no 6, pp 4-11 and 40-45, 1994.
[37] J. Doumé Yondo. 1983. ├ëtude géographique d-un quartier chic de
Yaoundé : Bastos. Université de Yaoundé, Departement de geographie,
MA thesis.
[38] R. Zo-o Eyindanga. 1992. Le niveau d-équipements en voies et réseaux
divers ├á Yaoundé (Cameroun). Université Michel de Montaigne-
Bordeaux III, PhD Dissertation.
[39] A.C.Yeager Beth, C.F. Lanata, F. Lazo F. et al. ÔÇÿTransmission factors
and socio-economic status as determinants of diarrhoeal incidence in
Lima, Peru-, Journal of Diarrhoeal Diseases and Research 9 (3):186-
193, 1999.
[40] M.N. Manun-ebo, P.A. Haggerty, M. Kalengaie et al. ÔÇÿInfluence of
demographic, socio-economic and environmental variables on childhood
diarrhoea in a rural area of Zaire-, Journal of tropical Medicine and
Hygiene 97: 31-38, 1994
[41] E. Messou. -Water supply, excrement disposal and diarrhoeal diseases in
rural zones of Ivory Coast-, Medecine Tropicale 55: 225-230, 1995.
[42] J. Thomson, U. Goswami. 2003. ÔÇÿThe effect of neighborhood density on
phonological awareness in dyslexic and normally-developing readers-.
Poster presented at First Workshop of the Centre for Human
Communication, 7 April, UCL, London, UK
[43] C.E. Ross, J. Mirowsky. ÔÇÿNeighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and
health-, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42:258-76, 2001.
[44] L. Abah. 1990. ├ëtude d-aménagement de Mvog Ada et de Nkolndongo.
Université de Yaoundé, Department de geographie, MA thesis.
[45] S. Huttly. 2002. The Impact of Inadequate Sanitary Conditions on
Health in Developing Countries. London, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, Maternal and Child Epidemiology Unit.
[46] R. Blary. ÔÇÿUrbanité et quartiers précaires-, Revue canadienne d-études
du développement 26 (1) : 55-87, 2000.
[47] D. N. Valhov, F. Freudberg, D. Proietti, A. Ompad, .Quinni, V. Nandi
and S. Galea. ÔÇÿUrban as a Determinant of Health-, Journal of Urban
Health 84(3), 2007.