In Egypt, girls have traditionally been educationally
disadvantaged. This disadvantage, however, has been focused on the
failure to enter school. Increasingly it is recognized that girls who
ever-enroll are at least as likely to complete primary and secondary
education as boys. Still the belief persists that girls, especially those
from poor families, will be disadvantaged in terms of school
expenditures and the transitions to secondary and higher education.
We examine expenditures on tutoring during the final year of
preparatory school, and the transition to specific tracks of secondary
education. Tests during the last year of preparatory largely determine
a student’s educational future. Results show that girls, even girls from
poor families, are not disadvantaged in terms of expenditures,
whether for tutoring, fees or general expenses. Moreover, girls are
more likely than boys to advance to general secondary education, the
track that leads to higher education.
[1] World Bank. "Arab Republic of Egypt: Education Sector Review:
Progress and Priorities for the Future”, Washington, DC: World Bank,
Oct. 2002.
[2] Tembon, Mercy and Fort, Lucia, eds. "Girls’ Education in the 21st
Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth”,
Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008.
[3] Szyliowicz, Joseph S., "Education and modernization in the Middle
East”, Ithaca (N.Y.) : Cornell University Press, 1973.
[4] UNESCO, "UNESCO National Education Support Strategy UNESCO
Republic of Egypt”, Cairo: UNESCO, 2008.
[5] Assaad, Ragui, "Equality for All? Egypt’s Free Public Higher Education
Policy: Breeds Inequality of Opportunity”, Policy Perspective,
Economic Research Forum, No. 2, 2010.
[6] Waterbury, John, "The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat : the political
economy of two regimes”, Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press,
1983.
[7] El Badawy, Asmaa, Ahlburg, Dennis, Assaad, Ragui & Levison,
Deborah, "Private and Group Tutoring in Egypt: Where is the Gender
Inequality?”, 2004, at the following link: http://www.erf.org.eg/CMS/
uploads/pdf/1201419854_0429_assaad_badadwy.pdf, Accessed on 9
Mar.,2013.
[8] Klasen, Stephan, "Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and
Development? Evidence from Cross-Country Regressions”, World Bank
Policy Research Report Working Paper, No. 7, 2000.
[9] UNICEF, "Early Marriage: Child Spouses”, No. 7, Italy: Florace, 2001.
[10] Bokova, Irina, "Education for All: Reaching the marginalized”,
UNESCO, Oxford, the EFA, Global Monitoring Report, 2010.
[11] Rousso, Harilyn, "Education for All: a gender and disability
Perspective”, UNESCO, the EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2003/4. At
the following link: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/
leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/20034-gender/
[12] Gurun, Ayfer and Millimet, Daniel L., "Does private tutoring payoff?”,
Bonn, 2008.
[13] Glick, Peter, "Policy Impacts on Schooling Gender Gaps in Developing
Countries: The Evidence and a Framework for Interpretation” , 2008, at
the following link: http://library.unesco-iicba.org/English/Girls%20
Education/All%20Articles/Education%20and%20Policy/Policy%20Imp
acts%20on%20Schooling%20Gender%20Gaps.pdf
[14] Boudon, Raymond, "Education, Opportunity, and Social Inequality:
Changing Prospects in Western Society”, New York: Wiley, 1974.
[15] Blossfeld, Hans-Peter and Shavit, Yossi, "Persisting Barriers: Change in
educational opportunities in thirteen countries”, Oxford: Westview
press, 1993.
[16] Sultana, Ronald, "The Girls' Education Initiative In Egypt", Paris:
UNICEF, 2008.
[17] Bray, Mark, "Confronting the shadow education system: what
government policies for what private tutoring?”, France: IIEP’s
printshop, UNESCO, 2009.
[18] Loveluck, Louisa, "Background Paper: Education in Egypt: Key
Challenges”, London: Chatham House, 2012, On the following link:
http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle
%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf, Accessed on 14 Jan. 2013.
[19] Hartmann, Sarah, "The Informal Market of Education in Egypt. Private
Tutoring and Its Implications", Mainz: Institut für Ethnologie und
Afrikastudien, Johannes Gutenberg Universit?, 2008, at the following
link: http://www.ifeas.uni-mainz.de/Dateien/AP88.pdf, Accessed on: 10
Mar, 2013.
[20] Sobhy, Hania, "The de-facto privatization of secondary education in
Egypt: a study of private tutoring in technical and general schools”,
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, Vol.
42, issue 1, 47-67, 2012.
[21] Ibrahim, B. and H. Wassef, Caught Between Two Worlds: Youth in the
Egyptian hinterland. Alienation or Integration of Arab Youth. R. Meijer.
London, Curzon, 2000.
[22] Mensch, B. S., B. Ibrahim, S.M. Lee, and O. El-Gibaly, "Gender-role
Attitudes among Egyptian Adolescents." Studies in Family Planning 34
(1), 2003, pp 8-18.
[23] Elgeziri, Moushira and Langsten, Ray, "Equity and Decision Making in
the Transition to University Education in Egypt”, presented at the
conference on "University Governance and Autonomy in the Changing
Landscape of Higher Education, in the Arab World”, Beirut, 2010.
[24] Pasqua, Silvia, "Gender bias in Parental Investments in Children’s
Education: A Theoretical Analysis”, Netherlands: Springer Science,
Review of Economics of the Household, vol. 3, 2005, pp 291-314.
[25] El Badawy, Asmaa, Assaad, Ragui, "Private and Group Tutoring in
Egypt: Where is the Gender Inequality?”, 2007, at the following link:
http://www.erf.org.eg/CMS/uploads/pdf/1184658922_Ragui_Asmaa.pdf
, Accessed on 9 Mar, 2013.
[26] Hua, Haiyan, "Which Student Are Likely to Participate in Private
Lessons or School Tutoring in Egypt?”, Harvard University: Faculty of
Graduate School of Education, PhD Thesis, 1996.
[27] Langsten, Ray and Tahra Hassan, "Education Transitions in Egypt”.
Cairo: American University in Cairo, Submitted for Publication.
[28] Kim, Sunwoong and Ju-Ho Lee, "Private Tutoring and Demand for
Education in South Korea." Economic Development and Cultural
Change 57, 2010, pp259-296.
[29] El Badawy, Asmaa, "The Effect of Tutoring on Secondary Streaming in
Egypt”, 2006, Unpublished.
[30] Lloyd, Cynthia B., El Tawila, Sahar, Clark, Wesley H., and Mensch,
Barbara S., "The Impact of Educational Quality on School Exit in
Egypt”,?? Comparative Education Review, vol. 47, no. 4, 2003, pp444-
467.
[31] El-Zanaty, Fatma and Gorin, Stephanie, "Egyptian Household Education
Survey2005-06”, Cairo: El Zanaty & Associates and Macro International
Inc, 2007.
[1] World Bank. "Arab Republic of Egypt: Education Sector Review:
Progress and Priorities for the Future”, Washington, DC: World Bank,
Oct. 2002.
[2] Tembon, Mercy and Fort, Lucia, eds. "Girls’ Education in the 21st
Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth”,
Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008.
[3] Szyliowicz, Joseph S., "Education and modernization in the Middle
East”, Ithaca (N.Y.) : Cornell University Press, 1973.
[4] UNESCO, "UNESCO National Education Support Strategy UNESCO
Republic of Egypt”, Cairo: UNESCO, 2008.
[5] Assaad, Ragui, "Equality for All? Egypt’s Free Public Higher Education
Policy: Breeds Inequality of Opportunity”, Policy Perspective,
Economic Research Forum, No. 2, 2010.
[6] Waterbury, John, "The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat : the political
economy of two regimes”, Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press,
1983.
[7] El Badawy, Asmaa, Ahlburg, Dennis, Assaad, Ragui & Levison,
Deborah, "Private and Group Tutoring in Egypt: Where is the Gender
Inequality?”, 2004, at the following link: http://www.erf.org.eg/CMS/
uploads/pdf/1201419854_0429_assaad_badadwy.pdf, Accessed on 9
Mar.,2013.
[8] Klasen, Stephan, "Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and
Development? Evidence from Cross-Country Regressions”, World Bank
Policy Research Report Working Paper, No. 7, 2000.
[9] UNICEF, "Early Marriage: Child Spouses”, No. 7, Italy: Florace, 2001.
[10] Bokova, Irina, "Education for All: Reaching the marginalized”,
UNESCO, Oxford, the EFA, Global Monitoring Report, 2010.
[11] Rousso, Harilyn, "Education for All: a gender and disability
Perspective”, UNESCO, the EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2003/4. At
the following link: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/
leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/20034-gender/
[12] Gurun, Ayfer and Millimet, Daniel L., "Does private tutoring payoff?”,
Bonn, 2008.
[13] Glick, Peter, "Policy Impacts on Schooling Gender Gaps in Developing
Countries: The Evidence and a Framework for Interpretation” , 2008, at
the following link: http://library.unesco-iicba.org/English/Girls%20
Education/All%20Articles/Education%20and%20Policy/Policy%20Imp
acts%20on%20Schooling%20Gender%20Gaps.pdf
[14] Boudon, Raymond, "Education, Opportunity, and Social Inequality:
Changing Prospects in Western Society”, New York: Wiley, 1974.
[15] Blossfeld, Hans-Peter and Shavit, Yossi, "Persisting Barriers: Change in
educational opportunities in thirteen countries”, Oxford: Westview
press, 1993.
[16] Sultana, Ronald, "The Girls' Education Initiative In Egypt", Paris:
UNICEF, 2008.
[17] Bray, Mark, "Confronting the shadow education system: what
government policies for what private tutoring?”, France: IIEP’s
printshop, UNESCO, 2009.
[18] Loveluck, Louisa, "Background Paper: Education in Egypt: Key
Challenges”, London: Chatham House, 2012, On the following link:
http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle
%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf, Accessed on 14 Jan. 2013.
[19] Hartmann, Sarah, "The Informal Market of Education in Egypt. Private
Tutoring and Its Implications", Mainz: Institut für Ethnologie und
Afrikastudien, Johannes Gutenberg Universit?, 2008, at the following
link: http://www.ifeas.uni-mainz.de/Dateien/AP88.pdf, Accessed on: 10
Mar, 2013.
[20] Sobhy, Hania, "The de-facto privatization of secondary education in
Egypt: a study of private tutoring in technical and general schools”,
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, Vol.
42, issue 1, 47-67, 2012.
[21] Ibrahim, B. and H. Wassef, Caught Between Two Worlds: Youth in the
Egyptian hinterland. Alienation or Integration of Arab Youth. R. Meijer.
London, Curzon, 2000.
[22] Mensch, B. S., B. Ibrahim, S.M. Lee, and O. El-Gibaly, "Gender-role
Attitudes among Egyptian Adolescents." Studies in Family Planning 34
(1), 2003, pp 8-18.
[23] Elgeziri, Moushira and Langsten, Ray, "Equity and Decision Making in
the Transition to University Education in Egypt”, presented at the
conference on "University Governance and Autonomy in the Changing
Landscape of Higher Education, in the Arab World”, Beirut, 2010.
[24] Pasqua, Silvia, "Gender bias in Parental Investments in Children’s
Education: A Theoretical Analysis”, Netherlands: Springer Science,
Review of Economics of the Household, vol. 3, 2005, pp 291-314.
[25] El Badawy, Asmaa, Assaad, Ragui, "Private and Group Tutoring in
Egypt: Where is the Gender Inequality?”, 2007, at the following link:
http://www.erf.org.eg/CMS/uploads/pdf/1184658922_Ragui_Asmaa.pdf
, Accessed on 9 Mar, 2013.
[26] Hua, Haiyan, "Which Student Are Likely to Participate in Private
Lessons or School Tutoring in Egypt?”, Harvard University: Faculty of
Graduate School of Education, PhD Thesis, 1996.
[27] Langsten, Ray and Tahra Hassan, "Education Transitions in Egypt”.
Cairo: American University in Cairo, Submitted for Publication.
[28] Kim, Sunwoong and Ju-Ho Lee, "Private Tutoring and Demand for
Education in South Korea." Economic Development and Cultural
Change 57, 2010, pp259-296.
[29] El Badawy, Asmaa, "The Effect of Tutoring on Secondary Streaming in
Egypt”, 2006, Unpublished.
[30] Lloyd, Cynthia B., El Tawila, Sahar, Clark, Wesley H., and Mensch,
Barbara S., "The Impact of Educational Quality on School Exit in
Egypt”,?? Comparative Education Review, vol. 47, no. 4, 2003, pp444-
467.
[31] El-Zanaty, Fatma and Gorin, Stephanie, "Egyptian Household Education
Survey2005-06”, Cairo: El Zanaty & Associates and Macro International
Inc, 2007.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:68086", author = "Eman Sh. Sayed and Ray Langsten", title = "Gender, Tutoring and Track in Egyptian Education", abstract = "In Egypt, girls have traditionally been educationally
disadvantaged. This disadvantage, however, has been focused on the
failure to enter school. Increasingly it is recognized that girls who
ever-enroll are at least as likely to complete primary and secondary
education as boys. Still the belief persists that girls, especially those
from poor families, will be disadvantaged in terms of school
expenditures and the transitions to secondary and higher education.
We examine expenditures on tutoring during the final year of
preparatory school, and the transition to specific tracks of secondary
education. Tests during the last year of preparatory largely determine
a student’s educational future. Results show that girls, even girls from
poor families, are not disadvantaged in terms of expenditures,
whether for tutoring, fees or general expenses. Moreover, girls are
more likely than boys to advance to general secondary education, the
track that leads to higher education.
", keywords = "Gender, Tutoring, Track, Egyptian Education.", volume = "8", number = "10", pages = "3249-5", }
