Ethics in Negotiations: The Confrontation between Representation and Practices
While in practice negotiation is always a mix of
cooperation and competition, these two elements correspond to
different approaches of the relationship and also different orientations
in term of strategy, techniques, tactics and arguments employed by
the negotiators with related effects and in the end leading to different
outcomes. The levels of honesty, trust and therefore cooperation are
influenced not only by the uncertainty of the situation, the objectives,
stakes or power but also by the orientation given from the very
beginning of the relationship. When negotiation is reduced to a
confrontation of power, participants rely on coercive measures, using
different kinds of threats or make false promises and bluff in order to
establish a more acceptable balance of power.
Most of the negotiators have a tendency to complain about the
unethical aspects of the tactics used by their counterparts while, as
the same time, they are mostly unaware of the sources of influence of
their own vision and practices. In this article, our intention is to
clarify these sources and try to understand what can lead negotiators
to unethical practices.
[1] C. Dupont, "A model of the negotiation process with different
strategies", in P. Ghauri, J. C. Usunier (eds), International Business
Negotiations, Pergamon / Elsevier Science, 1996, pp. 39-67.
[2] G-O. Faure, G. Sjöstedt, "Culture and negotiation: An introduction" in
G-O. Faure, J. Z. Rubin (ed.), Culture and Negotiation, Sage
Publications, 1993, pp.1-13.
[3] L. L. Putnam, , "Reframing integrative and distributive bargaining: A
process perspective", in R. J. Lewicki, B. H. Sheppard, M.H. Bazerman
(eds.), Research on negotiation in organizations, JAI series annual,
Greenwich CT: JAI, 1990.
[4] L. L. Putnam, M. E. Roloff, Communication and Negotiation, Sage
Publications, Newbury Park. CA. 1992.
[5] R. E. Walton, R. B. McKersie, A behavioral theory of labor
negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system. New York: Mc
Graw Hill, 1965.
[6] D. A. Lax, J. K. Sebenius, The manager as negotiator, New York: Free
Press. 1986.
[7] R. E. Walton, R. B. McKersie, "A retrospective on the behavioral theory
of labor negotiations", Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 13, pp.
277-285, 1992.
[8] W. I. Zartman, "Resolving the toughness dilemma", in G-O. Faure, La
négociation : Regards sur sa diversité, Première biennale internationale
de la négociation, Paris: Editions Publibook, 2005, pp. 45-59
[9] D. Nelson, M. Wheeler, "Rocks and hard places: managing two tensions
in negotiation", Negotiation Journal, vol. 20, n┬░. 1, pp.113-128, 2004.
[10] J. K. Sebenius, "Six habits of merely effective negotiators", Harvard
Business Review, vol. 79, n┬░. 4, April, pp. 87-95, 2001.
[11] K. G. Allred, "Distinguishing best and strategic practices: A framework
for managing the dilemma between creating and claiming value",
Negotiation Journal, vol. 16, n┬░. 4, pp. 387−397, 2000.
[12] I. W. Zartman, "The structure of negotiation", in V. A. Kremenyuk (ed.),
International Negotiation: Analysis, Approaches, Issues, Jossey Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1991, pp. 65-77.
[13] R. J. Lewicki, D. M. Saunders, J. W. Minton, Essentials of Negotiation,
Mc Graw Hill, 2nd edition, 2001.
[14] M. Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1973.
[15] K. Boulding, "The nature of power", in Lewicki Roy J., Saunders David
M., Minton John W., Negotiation: readings, exercises and cases, Mc
Graw Hill, 3rd edition, 1999, pp. 180-192.
[16] T. C. Schelling, Arms and Influence, New Haven, Yale University Press,
1966.
[17] R. Fisher, "Negotiating power: Getting and using influence", in W. J.
Breslin, J. Z. Rubin, Negotiation Theory and Practice, The Program on
Negotiation at Harvard Law School, Cambridge, Mass., 5th edition.
1999, pp. 127-140.
[18] M. Leroux, Les dimensions cachées de la négociation, Paris, Insep
Editions, 1992.
[19] J. A.Wall, R. Roberts Callister, "Conflict and its management", Journal
of management, vol. 21, n┬░ 3, pp. 515-558, 1995.
[20] A. Z. Carr, "Is business bluffing ethical?", Harvard Business Review,
46, Jan-Feb, pp. 143-153, 1968.
[21] F. Allhoff, "Business bluffing reconsidered", Journal of Business
Ethics, vol. 45, n┬░. 4, pp. 283−289, 2003.
[22] J. Varelius, "Allhoff on business bluffing", Journal of Business Ethics,
vol. 65, n┬░. 2, pp. 163-171, 2006.
[23] C. Provis, "Ethics, deception and labor negotiation", Journal of
Business Ethics, vol. 28, n┬░. 2, pp. 145-158, 2000.
[24] I. Smithey Fulmer, B. Barry, D. A. Long, "Lying and smiling:
Informational and emotional deception in negotiation", Journal of
Business Ethics, vol. 65, n┬░. 2, pp. 691-709, 2009.
[25] M. Olekalns, P. L. Smith, "Mutually dependent: power, trust, affect and
the use of deception in negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 85,
n┬░. 3, pp. 347−365, 2009.
[26] H. C. Triandis, P. Carnevale & al), "Culture and Deception in Business
Negotiations: A Multilevel Analysis", International journal of Cross
Cultural Management, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.73-90, 2001.
[27] F.R. Kluckhohn, F.L. Strodbeck, Variations in value orientations,
Greenwood Press, 1961.
[28] M. Olekalns, P. L. Smith, "Loose with the Truth: Predicting Deception
in Negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 76, n┬░. 2, pp.225−238,
2007.
[29] C. Rivers, A. L. Lytle, "Lying, cheating foreigners!! Negotiation ethics
across cultures", International Negotiation, vol. 12, n┬░. 1, pp.1-28,
2007.
[30] P. Watzlawick, How real is real? Communication, Disinformation,
Confusion, New-York: Random House, 1976.
[31] M. Sinaceur, A. M. Neale, "Not All Threats are Created Equal: How
Implicitness and Timing Affect the Effectiveness of Threats in
Negotiations", Group Decision and Negotiation, vol. 14, n┬░. 1,
pp.63−85, 2005.
[32] R. J. Lewicki., R. J. Robinson, "Ethical and unethical bargaining tactics:
An empirical study", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 17, n┬░. 6, pp. 665-
682, 1998.
[33] T. R. Cohen, "Moral emotions and unethical bargaining: The differential
effects of empathy and perspective taking in deterring deceitful
negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 94, n┬░. 4, pp. 569-579,
2010.
[1] C. Dupont, "A model of the negotiation process with different
strategies", in P. Ghauri, J. C. Usunier (eds), International Business
Negotiations, Pergamon / Elsevier Science, 1996, pp. 39-67.
[2] G-O. Faure, G. Sjöstedt, "Culture and negotiation: An introduction" in
G-O. Faure, J. Z. Rubin (ed.), Culture and Negotiation, Sage
Publications, 1993, pp.1-13.
[3] L. L. Putnam, , "Reframing integrative and distributive bargaining: A
process perspective", in R. J. Lewicki, B. H. Sheppard, M.H. Bazerman
(eds.), Research on negotiation in organizations, JAI series annual,
Greenwich CT: JAI, 1990.
[4] L. L. Putnam, M. E. Roloff, Communication and Negotiation, Sage
Publications, Newbury Park. CA. 1992.
[5] R. E. Walton, R. B. McKersie, A behavioral theory of labor
negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system. New York: Mc
Graw Hill, 1965.
[6] D. A. Lax, J. K. Sebenius, The manager as negotiator, New York: Free
Press. 1986.
[7] R. E. Walton, R. B. McKersie, "A retrospective on the behavioral theory
of labor negotiations", Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 13, pp.
277-285, 1992.
[8] W. I. Zartman, "Resolving the toughness dilemma", in G-O. Faure, La
négociation : Regards sur sa diversité, Première biennale internationale
de la négociation, Paris: Editions Publibook, 2005, pp. 45-59
[9] D. Nelson, M. Wheeler, "Rocks and hard places: managing two tensions
in negotiation", Negotiation Journal, vol. 20, n┬░. 1, pp.113-128, 2004.
[10] J. K. Sebenius, "Six habits of merely effective negotiators", Harvard
Business Review, vol. 79, n┬░. 4, April, pp. 87-95, 2001.
[11] K. G. Allred, "Distinguishing best and strategic practices: A framework
for managing the dilemma between creating and claiming value",
Negotiation Journal, vol. 16, n┬░. 4, pp. 387−397, 2000.
[12] I. W. Zartman, "The structure of negotiation", in V. A. Kremenyuk (ed.),
International Negotiation: Analysis, Approaches, Issues, Jossey Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, 1991, pp. 65-77.
[13] R. J. Lewicki, D. M. Saunders, J. W. Minton, Essentials of Negotiation,
Mc Graw Hill, 2nd edition, 2001.
[14] M. Deutsch, The Resolution of Conflict, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1973.
[15] K. Boulding, "The nature of power", in Lewicki Roy J., Saunders David
M., Minton John W., Negotiation: readings, exercises and cases, Mc
Graw Hill, 3rd edition, 1999, pp. 180-192.
[16] T. C. Schelling, Arms and Influence, New Haven, Yale University Press,
1966.
[17] R. Fisher, "Negotiating power: Getting and using influence", in W. J.
Breslin, J. Z. Rubin, Negotiation Theory and Practice, The Program on
Negotiation at Harvard Law School, Cambridge, Mass., 5th edition.
1999, pp. 127-140.
[18] M. Leroux, Les dimensions cachées de la négociation, Paris, Insep
Editions, 1992.
[19] J. A.Wall, R. Roberts Callister, "Conflict and its management", Journal
of management, vol. 21, n┬░ 3, pp. 515-558, 1995.
[20] A. Z. Carr, "Is business bluffing ethical?", Harvard Business Review,
46, Jan-Feb, pp. 143-153, 1968.
[21] F. Allhoff, "Business bluffing reconsidered", Journal of Business
Ethics, vol. 45, n┬░. 4, pp. 283−289, 2003.
[22] J. Varelius, "Allhoff on business bluffing", Journal of Business Ethics,
vol. 65, n┬░. 2, pp. 163-171, 2006.
[23] C. Provis, "Ethics, deception and labor negotiation", Journal of
Business Ethics, vol. 28, n┬░. 2, pp. 145-158, 2000.
[24] I. Smithey Fulmer, B. Barry, D. A. Long, "Lying and smiling:
Informational and emotional deception in negotiation", Journal of
Business Ethics, vol. 65, n┬░. 2, pp. 691-709, 2009.
[25] M. Olekalns, P. L. Smith, "Mutually dependent: power, trust, affect and
the use of deception in negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 85,
n┬░. 3, pp. 347−365, 2009.
[26] H. C. Triandis, P. Carnevale & al), "Culture and Deception in Business
Negotiations: A Multilevel Analysis", International journal of Cross
Cultural Management, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.73-90, 2001.
[27] F.R. Kluckhohn, F.L. Strodbeck, Variations in value orientations,
Greenwood Press, 1961.
[28] M. Olekalns, P. L. Smith, "Loose with the Truth: Predicting Deception
in Negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 76, n┬░. 2, pp.225−238,
2007.
[29] C. Rivers, A. L. Lytle, "Lying, cheating foreigners!! Negotiation ethics
across cultures", International Negotiation, vol. 12, n┬░. 1, pp.1-28,
2007.
[30] P. Watzlawick, How real is real? Communication, Disinformation,
Confusion, New-York: Random House, 1976.
[31] M. Sinaceur, A. M. Neale, "Not All Threats are Created Equal: How
Implicitness and Timing Affect the Effectiveness of Threats in
Negotiations", Group Decision and Negotiation, vol. 14, n┬░. 1,
pp.63−85, 2005.
[32] R. J. Lewicki., R. J. Robinson, "Ethical and unethical bargaining tactics:
An empirical study", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 17, n┬░. 6, pp. 665-
682, 1998.
[33] T. R. Cohen, "Moral emotions and unethical bargaining: The differential
effects of empathy and perspective taking in deterring deceitful
negotiation", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 94, n┬░. 4, pp. 569-579,
2010.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:50419", author = "Claude Alavoine", title = "Ethics in Negotiations: The Confrontation between Representation and Practices", abstract = "While in practice negotiation is always a mix of
cooperation and competition, these two elements correspond to
different approaches of the relationship and also different orientations
in term of strategy, techniques, tactics and arguments employed by
the negotiators with related effects and in the end leading to different
outcomes. The levels of honesty, trust and therefore cooperation are
influenced not only by the uncertainty of the situation, the objectives,
stakes or power but also by the orientation given from the very
beginning of the relationship. When negotiation is reduced to a
confrontation of power, participants rely on coercive measures, using
different kinds of threats or make false promises and bluff in order to
establish a more acceptable balance of power.
Most of the negotiators have a tendency to complain about the
unethical aspects of the tactics used by their counterparts while, as
the same time, they are mostly unaware of the sources of influence of
their own vision and practices. In this article, our intention is to
clarify these sources and try to understand what can lead negotiators
to unethical practices.", keywords = "competition, cooperation, ethics, negotiation, power", volume = "5", number = "6", pages = "841-6", }
