Educational Values of Virtual Reality: The Case of Spatial Ability
The use of Virtual Reality (VR) in schools and higher education is proliferating. Due to its interactive and animated features, it is regarded as a promising technology to increase students- spatial ability. Spatial ability is assumed to have a prominent role in science and engineering domains. However, research concerning individual differences such as spatial ability in the context of VR is still at its infancy. Moreover, empirical studies that focus on the features of VR to improve spatial ability are to date rare. Thus, this paper explores the possible educational values of VR in relation to spatial ability to call for more research concerning spatial ability in the context of VR based on studies in computerbased learning. It is believed that the incorporation of state-of-the-art VR technology for educational purposes should be justified by the enhanced benefits for the target learners.
[1] N. Strangman and T. Hall, "Virtual reality/simulations. Wakefield, MA:
National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum," 2003. (Online).
Available: http//www.cast.org/publications/ncac/n cac_vr.html.
[2] Y. Inoue, "Concepts, applications, and research of virtual reality learning
environments," International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 2, pp. 1-7,
2007.
[3] E. A.-L. Lee and K. W. Wong, "A review of using virtual reality for
learning," Transactions on Edutainment vol. 1, pp. 231-241, 2008.
[4] S. Jang, R. W. Jyung, and J. B. Black, "How direct interaction in a
virtual reality program aids in developing an internal representation of a
complex 3-D structure," in World Conference on Educational
Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunication, Vancouver, Canada,
2007, pp. 4214-4218.
[5] J. L. Mohler, "Utilizing desktop virtual reality to enhance visualization:
Applied projects from the Department of Computer Graphics," in
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference of Information
Visualization, 1999, pp. 363-369.
[6] C. J. Chen, "Are spatial visualization abilities relevant to virtual
reality?," e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, vol. 9, pp.
1-16, 2006. (Online). Available: http://www.usq.edu.au/elec
tpub/e-jist/docs/vol9_no2/papers/full_papers/chen.pdf.
[7] R. E. Mayer, "Introduction to multimedia learning," in The Cambridge
Handbook of Multimedia Learning, R. E. Mayer, Ed. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 1-16.
[8] Z. Pan, A. D. Cheok, H. Yang, J. Zhu, and J. Shi, "Virtual reality and
mixed reality for virtual learning environments," Computers & Graphics,
vol. 30, pp. 20-28, 2006.
[9] C. J. Chen, S. C. Toh, and M. F. Wan, "The theoretical framework for
designing desktop virtual reality-based learning environment," Journal
of Interactive Learning Research, vol. 15, pp. 147-167, 2004.
[10] B. Dalgarno, J. Hedberg, and B. Harper, "The contribution of 3D
environments to conceptual understanding," in ASCILITE 2002,
Auckland, New Zealand, 2002, pp. 149-158.
[11] K. Allen, T. Austin, R. Beach, A. Bergstrom, S. Exon, M. Fabri, C.
Fencott, K. Fernie, M. Gerhard, C. Grout, and S. Jeffrey, "Creating and
using virtual reality: A guide for the arts and humanities," 2002.
(Online). Available: http://vads.ahds.ac.uk/guides/vr_guide/sert1
1.html.
[12] D. Fällman, "Virtual reality in education: On-line survey," 2000.
(Online). Available: http://www.informatik.umu.se/~dfallman/pro
jects/vrie.
[13] G. M. Bordner and R. B. Guay, "The purdue visualization of rotations
test," The Chemical Educator, vol. 2, pp. 1-17, 1997.
[14] R. D. Hannafin, M. P. Truxaw, J. R. Vermillion, and Y. Liu, "Effects of
spatial ability and instructional program on geometry achievement," The
Journal of Educational Research, vol. 101, pp. 148-156, 2008.
[15] S. P. Lajorie, "Individual differences in spatial ability: Developing
technologies to increase strategy awareness and skills," Educational
Psychologist, vol. 38, pp. 115-125, 2008.
[16] A. Rafi, K. Anuar, A. Samad, M. Hayati, and M. Mahadzir, "Improving
spatial ability using a web-based virtual environment," Automation in
Construction, vol. 14, pp. 707-715, 2005.
[17] M. Linn and A. C. Petersen, "Emergence and characterization of sex
differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis," Child Development, vol.
56, pp. 1479-1498, 1985.
[18] H. Gardner, Multiple intelligence: The theory in practice: New York:
Basic Books, 1993.
[19] N. Durlach, G. Allen, R. Darken, R. L. Garnett, J. Loomis, J.
Templeman, and T. E. Von Wiegand, "Virtual environments and the
enhancement of spatial behavior: Towards a comprehensive research
agenda," Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, vol. 9, pp.
593-615, 2000.
[20] A. A. Black, "Spatial ability and earth science conceptual
understanding," Journal of Geoscience Education, vol. 53, pp. 402-414,
2005.
[21] W. B. Michael, J. P. Guildford, B. Fruchter, and W. S. Zimmerman,
"The description of spatial-visualization abilities," Education and
Psychological Measurement, vol. 17, pp. 185-199, 1957.
[22] R. B. Ekstrom, J. W. French, H. H. Harman, and D. Dermen, Manual for
kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests: Educational Testing Service,
Princeton, N. J., 1976.
[23] M. G. McGee, Human spatial abilities, sources of sex differences:
Praeger, N. Y. , 1979.
[24] M. Peters, P. Chisholm, and B. Laeng, "Spatial ability, student gender
and academic performance," Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 84,
pp. 69-73, 1995.
[25] G. K. Bennett, H. G. Seashore, and A. G. Wesman, DAT differential
aptitude tests for personnel and career assessment technical manual: The
Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX, 1991.
[26] H. A. Witkin, P. K. Oltman, E. Raskin, and S. A. Karp, Group embedded
figures test manual: Mind Garden, Inc., Redwood City, CA, 2002.
[27] H. K. Wu and P. Shah, "Exploring visuospatial thinking in chemistry
learning," Science Education, vol. 88, pp. 465-492, 2004.
[28] C. Potter and E. Merwe, "Spatial ability, visual imagery and academic
performance in engineering graphics," in Proceedings of the
International Conference on Engineering Education, Oslo/Bergen,
Norway, 2001.
[29] B. B. Gimmerstad and S. A. Sorby, "Making connections: Spatial skills
and engineering drawing," Mathematics Teachers vol. 89, pp. 348-353,
1996.
[30] R. Eyal and F. Tendick, "Spatial ability and learning the use of an angled
laparoscope in a virtual environment," in Proceedings of the Annual
Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference, 2001, pp. 146-151.
[31] T. Huk, "Who benefits from learning with 3D models? The case of
spatial ability," Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol. 22, pp. 392-
404, 2006.
[32] T. R. Lord and J. L. Rupert, "Visual-spatial aptitude in elementary
education majors in science and math tracks," Journal of Elementary
Science Education, vol. 7, pp. 45-58, 1995.
[33] T. R. Lord, "Enhancing learning in the life sciences through spatial
perception," Innovative Higher Education, vol. 15, pp. 5-16, 1990.
[34] T. Huk, M. Steinke, and C. Floto, "The influence of visual spatial ability
on the attitude of users towards high-quality 3D-animations in
hypermedia learning environments," in Proceeding of E-Learn, 2003, pp.
1038-1041.
[35] H. McLellan, "Cognitives issues in virtual reality," Journal of Visual
Literacy, vol. 18, pp. 5-12, 1998.
[36] A. X. Garg, G. Norman, and L. Speratoble "How medical students learn
spatial anatomy," The Lancet, vol. 357, pp. 363-364, 2001.
[37] M. Keehner and P. Khooshabeh, "Computerized representations of 3D
structure: How spatial comprehension and patterns of interactivity differ
among learners," 2002. (Online). Available:
http://media.igert.ucsb.edu/pubdls/Keehn&Khoosh.pgd.
[38] K. L. Norman, "Spatial visualization - A gateway to computer-based
technology," Journal of Special Education Technology, vol. 7, pp. 195-
206, 1994.
[39] M. Keehner, D. R. Montello, M. Hegarty, and C. Cohen, "Effects of
interactivity and spatial ability on the comprehension of spatial relations
in a 3D computer visualization," in Proceedings of the 26th Annual
Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 2004.
[40] T. A. Hays, "Spatial abilities and the effects of computer animation on
short-term and long-term comprehension," Journal of Educational
Computing Research, vol. 14, pp. 139-155, 1996.
[41] R. E. Mayer and V. K. Sims, "From whom is a picture worth a thousand
words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, pp. 389-401, 1994.
[42] A. X. Garg, R. N. Geoffery, K. W. Eva, L. Spero, and S. Sharan, "Is
there any real virtue of virtual reality?: The minor role of multiple
orientations in learning anatomy from computers," Academic Medicine,
vol. 77, pp. 97-99, 2002.
[43] R. Moreno and R. E. Mayer, "Multimedia-supported metaphors for
meaning making in mathematics," Cognitive and Instruction, vol. 17, pp.
215-248, 1999.
[44] P. Chandler and J. Sweller, "Cognitive load theory and the format of
instruction," Cognitive and Instruction, vol. 8, pp. 293-332, 1991.
[45] H.-C. Wang, C.-Y. Chang, and T.-Y. Li, "The comparative efficacy of
2D-versus 3D-based media design for influencing spatial visualization
skills," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 23, pp. 1943-1957, 2007.
[46] L. J. Cronbach and R. E. Snow, "Individual differences in learning
ability as a function of instruction variables. (Final report, Contract No.
OEC-4-6-061269-1217), Stanford, CA: Stanford University, School of
Education. (U.S. Office of Education, ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 029 001)." 1969.
[47] D. H. Jonassen and B. L. Grabowki, Handbook of individual differences,
learning, and instruction: Lawrence-Erlbaum Associates, NJ, 1993.
[48] S. Tobias, "Adapting instruction to individual differences among
students," in The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Boston, 1980.
[1] N. Strangman and T. Hall, "Virtual reality/simulations. Wakefield, MA:
National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum," 2003. (Online).
Available: http//www.cast.org/publications/ncac/n cac_vr.html.
[2] Y. Inoue, "Concepts, applications, and research of virtual reality learning
environments," International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 2, pp. 1-7,
2007.
[3] E. A.-L. Lee and K. W. Wong, "A review of using virtual reality for
learning," Transactions on Edutainment vol. 1, pp. 231-241, 2008.
[4] S. Jang, R. W. Jyung, and J. B. Black, "How direct interaction in a
virtual reality program aids in developing an internal representation of a
complex 3-D structure," in World Conference on Educational
Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunication, Vancouver, Canada,
2007, pp. 4214-4218.
[5] J. L. Mohler, "Utilizing desktop virtual reality to enhance visualization:
Applied projects from the Department of Computer Graphics," in
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference of Information
Visualization, 1999, pp. 363-369.
[6] C. J. Chen, "Are spatial visualization abilities relevant to virtual
reality?," e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, vol. 9, pp.
1-16, 2006. (Online). Available: http://www.usq.edu.au/elec
tpub/e-jist/docs/vol9_no2/papers/full_papers/chen.pdf.
[7] R. E. Mayer, "Introduction to multimedia learning," in The Cambridge
Handbook of Multimedia Learning, R. E. Mayer, Ed. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 1-16.
[8] Z. Pan, A. D. Cheok, H. Yang, J. Zhu, and J. Shi, "Virtual reality and
mixed reality for virtual learning environments," Computers & Graphics,
vol. 30, pp. 20-28, 2006.
[9] C. J. Chen, S. C. Toh, and M. F. Wan, "The theoretical framework for
designing desktop virtual reality-based learning environment," Journal
of Interactive Learning Research, vol. 15, pp. 147-167, 2004.
[10] B. Dalgarno, J. Hedberg, and B. Harper, "The contribution of 3D
environments to conceptual understanding," in ASCILITE 2002,
Auckland, New Zealand, 2002, pp. 149-158.
[11] K. Allen, T. Austin, R. Beach, A. Bergstrom, S. Exon, M. Fabri, C.
Fencott, K. Fernie, M. Gerhard, C. Grout, and S. Jeffrey, "Creating and
using virtual reality: A guide for the arts and humanities," 2002.
(Online). Available: http://vads.ahds.ac.uk/guides/vr_guide/sert1
1.html.
[12] D. Fällman, "Virtual reality in education: On-line survey," 2000.
(Online). Available: http://www.informatik.umu.se/~dfallman/pro
jects/vrie.
[13] G. M. Bordner and R. B. Guay, "The purdue visualization of rotations
test," The Chemical Educator, vol. 2, pp. 1-17, 1997.
[14] R. D. Hannafin, M. P. Truxaw, J. R. Vermillion, and Y. Liu, "Effects of
spatial ability and instructional program on geometry achievement," The
Journal of Educational Research, vol. 101, pp. 148-156, 2008.
[15] S. P. Lajorie, "Individual differences in spatial ability: Developing
technologies to increase strategy awareness and skills," Educational
Psychologist, vol. 38, pp. 115-125, 2008.
[16] A. Rafi, K. Anuar, A. Samad, M. Hayati, and M. Mahadzir, "Improving
spatial ability using a web-based virtual environment," Automation in
Construction, vol. 14, pp. 707-715, 2005.
[17] M. Linn and A. C. Petersen, "Emergence and characterization of sex
differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis," Child Development, vol.
56, pp. 1479-1498, 1985.
[18] H. Gardner, Multiple intelligence: The theory in practice: New York:
Basic Books, 1993.
[19] N. Durlach, G. Allen, R. Darken, R. L. Garnett, J. Loomis, J.
Templeman, and T. E. Von Wiegand, "Virtual environments and the
enhancement of spatial behavior: Towards a comprehensive research
agenda," Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, vol. 9, pp.
593-615, 2000.
[20] A. A. Black, "Spatial ability and earth science conceptual
understanding," Journal of Geoscience Education, vol. 53, pp. 402-414,
2005.
[21] W. B. Michael, J. P. Guildford, B. Fruchter, and W. S. Zimmerman,
"The description of spatial-visualization abilities," Education and
Psychological Measurement, vol. 17, pp. 185-199, 1957.
[22] R. B. Ekstrom, J. W. French, H. H. Harman, and D. Dermen, Manual for
kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests: Educational Testing Service,
Princeton, N. J., 1976.
[23] M. G. McGee, Human spatial abilities, sources of sex differences:
Praeger, N. Y. , 1979.
[24] M. Peters, P. Chisholm, and B. Laeng, "Spatial ability, student gender
and academic performance," Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 84,
pp. 69-73, 1995.
[25] G. K. Bennett, H. G. Seashore, and A. G. Wesman, DAT differential
aptitude tests for personnel and career assessment technical manual: The
Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX, 1991.
[26] H. A. Witkin, P. K. Oltman, E. Raskin, and S. A. Karp, Group embedded
figures test manual: Mind Garden, Inc., Redwood City, CA, 2002.
[27] H. K. Wu and P. Shah, "Exploring visuospatial thinking in chemistry
learning," Science Education, vol. 88, pp. 465-492, 2004.
[28] C. Potter and E. Merwe, "Spatial ability, visual imagery and academic
performance in engineering graphics," in Proceedings of the
International Conference on Engineering Education, Oslo/Bergen,
Norway, 2001.
[29] B. B. Gimmerstad and S. A. Sorby, "Making connections: Spatial skills
and engineering drawing," Mathematics Teachers vol. 89, pp. 348-353,
1996.
[30] R. Eyal and F. Tendick, "Spatial ability and learning the use of an angled
laparoscope in a virtual environment," in Proceedings of the Annual
Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference, 2001, pp. 146-151.
[31] T. Huk, "Who benefits from learning with 3D models? The case of
spatial ability," Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol. 22, pp. 392-
404, 2006.
[32] T. R. Lord and J. L. Rupert, "Visual-spatial aptitude in elementary
education majors in science and math tracks," Journal of Elementary
Science Education, vol. 7, pp. 45-58, 1995.
[33] T. R. Lord, "Enhancing learning in the life sciences through spatial
perception," Innovative Higher Education, vol. 15, pp. 5-16, 1990.
[34] T. Huk, M. Steinke, and C. Floto, "The influence of visual spatial ability
on the attitude of users towards high-quality 3D-animations in
hypermedia learning environments," in Proceeding of E-Learn, 2003, pp.
1038-1041.
[35] H. McLellan, "Cognitives issues in virtual reality," Journal of Visual
Literacy, vol. 18, pp. 5-12, 1998.
[36] A. X. Garg, G. Norman, and L. Speratoble "How medical students learn
spatial anatomy," The Lancet, vol. 357, pp. 363-364, 2001.
[37] M. Keehner and P. Khooshabeh, "Computerized representations of 3D
structure: How spatial comprehension and patterns of interactivity differ
among learners," 2002. (Online). Available:
http://media.igert.ucsb.edu/pubdls/Keehn&Khoosh.pgd.
[38] K. L. Norman, "Spatial visualization - A gateway to computer-based
technology," Journal of Special Education Technology, vol. 7, pp. 195-
206, 1994.
[39] M. Keehner, D. R. Montello, M. Hegarty, and C. Cohen, "Effects of
interactivity and spatial ability on the comprehension of spatial relations
in a 3D computer visualization," in Proceedings of the 26th Annual
Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 2004.
[40] T. A. Hays, "Spatial abilities and the effects of computer animation on
short-term and long-term comprehension," Journal of Educational
Computing Research, vol. 14, pp. 139-155, 1996.
[41] R. E. Mayer and V. K. Sims, "From whom is a picture worth a thousand
words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, pp. 389-401, 1994.
[42] A. X. Garg, R. N. Geoffery, K. W. Eva, L. Spero, and S. Sharan, "Is
there any real virtue of virtual reality?: The minor role of multiple
orientations in learning anatomy from computers," Academic Medicine,
vol. 77, pp. 97-99, 2002.
[43] R. Moreno and R. E. Mayer, "Multimedia-supported metaphors for
meaning making in mathematics," Cognitive and Instruction, vol. 17, pp.
215-248, 1999.
[44] P. Chandler and J. Sweller, "Cognitive load theory and the format of
instruction," Cognitive and Instruction, vol. 8, pp. 293-332, 1991.
[45] H.-C. Wang, C.-Y. Chang, and T.-Y. Li, "The comparative efficacy of
2D-versus 3D-based media design for influencing spatial visualization
skills," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 23, pp. 1943-1957, 2007.
[46] L. J. Cronbach and R. E. Snow, "Individual differences in learning
ability as a function of instruction variables. (Final report, Contract No.
OEC-4-6-061269-1217), Stanford, CA: Stanford University, School of
Education. (U.S. Office of Education, ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 029 001)." 1969.
[47] D. H. Jonassen and B. L. Grabowki, Handbook of individual differences,
learning, and instruction: Lawrence-Erlbaum Associates, NJ, 1993.
[48] S. Tobias, "Adapting instruction to individual differences among
students," in The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Boston, 1980.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:50266", author = "Elinda Ai-Lim Lee and Kok Wai Wong and Chun Che Fung", title = "Educational Values of Virtual Reality: The Case of Spatial Ability", abstract = "The use of Virtual Reality (VR) in schools and higher education is proliferating. Due to its interactive and animated features, it is regarded as a promising technology to increase students- spatial ability. Spatial ability is assumed to have a prominent role in science and engineering domains. However, research concerning individual differences such as spatial ability in the context of VR is still at its infancy. Moreover, empirical studies that focus on the features of VR to improve spatial ability are to date rare. Thus, this paper explores the possible educational values of VR in relation to spatial ability to call for more research concerning spatial ability in the context of VR based on studies in computerbased learning. It is believed that the incorporation of state-of-the-art VR technology for educational purposes should be justified by the enhanced benefits for the target learners.
", keywords = "Ability-as-compensator, ability-as-enhancer, spatialability, virtual reality.", volume = "3", number = "6", pages = "629-5", }
