Digital Narrative as a Change Agent to Teach Reading to Media-Centric Students
Because today-s media centric students have adopted
digital as their native form of communication, teachers are having
increasingly difficult time motivating reluctant readers to read and
write. Our research has shown these text-averse individuals can learn
to understand the importance of reading and writing if the instruction
is based on digital narratives. While these students are naturally
attracted to story, they are better at consuming them than creating
them. Therefore, any intervention that utilizes story as its basis needs
to include instruction on the elements of story making. This paper
presents a series of digitally-based tools to identify potential
weaknesses of visually impaired visual learners and to help motivate
these and other media-centric students to select and complete books
that are assigned to them
[1] W. J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technology of the Word. London,
Routledge, 1982.
[2] M. Prensky, Digital Games-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2001.
[3] K.S. Cennamo, W.C. Saveneye, and P.L. Smith, "Mental effort and
video-based learning: The relationship between preconceptions and the
effects of interactive and covert practice". Educational Technology
Research and Development, vol. 39, pp.5-16, 1988.
[4] N. Cowan, "Children's memories according to fuzzy-trace theory: An
endorsement of the theories purpose and some suggestions to improve its
application". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 71(2), pp.
144-154, 1998.
[5] M.A. Greenwald, "A survey of reading instrument usage in New Jersey
Public School Reading Programs, Grades K-12". ERIC Document
Reproduction Service: ED 056 844, 1972.
[6] J. M. Healy, Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children-s
Minds and What We Can Do about It, New York: Simon and Schuster,
1988.
[7] A. Lang and M. Basil, "Attention, resource allocation, and
communication research: What do secondary task reaction times
measure anyway?" In M. Roloff (ed.) Mass Communication Yearbook.
Beverly Hills Ca: Sage, p. 21, 1998.
[8] Lang, P. Bolls, R. Potter, and K. Kawahara, "The effects of production
pacing and arousing content on the information processing of television
messages". Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, vol. 43(4),
pp. 451-468, 1999.
[9] A. Lang, S. Zhou, N. Schwartz, P. Bolis, and R. Potter, "The effects of
edits on arousal, attention, and memory for television messages: When
an edit is an edit, can an edit be too much?", Journal of Broadcasting
and Electronic Media, vol. 44(1), pp. 94-109, 2000.
[10] D. Tapscott, Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.
[11] K. M. Bradt, Story As a Way of Knowing., Kansas City, MO: Sheed and
Ward, 1997.
[12] J. Bruner, Actual Minds Possible Worlds. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1986.
[13] B.W. Mott, C.B. Callaway, and L.S. Zetlemoyer, "Towards narrativecentered
learning environments", Available:
http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/253172.html. Accessed: October 31, 2007.
[14] R. Kenny, R. and G.A. Gunter, "Literacy through the arts". Paper
presented at the 28th Annual Conference of AECT, Orlando, FL, 2005,
November.
[15] M. Neiderman, R. Kenny, A. Sanchez, and M. Croft, "A changing
narrative paradigm". Presentation made at the Broadcast Education
Association Annual Conference. Las Vegas, NV, April 22, 2005.
[16] D. E. Barrett, Reflection-impulsivity as a predictor of children-s
academic achievement", Child Development, vol. 48(8), pp. 1443-1447,
1977.
[17] M. Spinella, and W.M. Miley, "Impulsivity and academic achievement
in college students". College Student Journal, 2003, December.
[18] M. Gladwell, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big
Difference. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2000.
[19] M. McLuhan. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
[20] R. Doman, "Learning problems and attention deficits", Journal of the
National Academy for Child Development, vol. 4(6), 1984.
[21] M. Shichida., Science of Intelligence and Creativity. Emigrant, MT:
Oatmeal Angels, 1994.
[22] R.M. Restak, The New Brain: How the Modern Age Is Rewiring Your
Mind. New York: Rodale St. Martins Press, 2003.
[23] J. Kagan, B.L. Rosman, D. Day, J. Albert, and W. Phillips, "Information
processing in the child: Significance of analytical and reflective
attitudes", Psychological Monographs, vol. 78(1), 1964.
[24] L. Cooper., "Strategies for visual comparison and representation:
Individual differences", Advances in Psychology of Human
Performance. R.J. Sternberg, (ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum,
1982.
[25] J.G. Hedberg and S.E. McNamara, "Matching feedback and cognitive
style in visual CAI tasks", Annual Meeting of the American Educational
Research Association (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: No. ED
260 105), Chicago, IL, 1985, March 31 - April 4.
[26] E.H. Ridberg, R.D. Parke, and E.M. Hetherington, "Modification of
impulsive and reflective cognitive styles through observation of filmmediated
models", Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 5(3), pp.
369-377, 1970.
[27] D.S. Campbell and R. B. Davis, "On the validity of reflectionimpulsivity
as a construct in classroom research", Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New York. ERIC
Document Reproduction Service: No. ED 222 502), (1982, March).
[28] J.J.G. van Merriënboer, "Instructional strategies for teaching computer
programming: Interactions with the cognitive style reflectionimpulsivity",
Journal of Research on Computing in Education, vol.
23(1), 1990.
[29] J. Cairns and T. Cammock, "The development of a more reliable version
of the Matching Familiar Figures Test". Developmental Psychology, vol.
5, pp. 555-560, 1978.
[30] J. Cairns and T. Cammock, "The 20-item matching familiar figures test".
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service: No. 015681-4), 1984.
[31] G. Buela-Casal, H. Carretero-Dios, M. del os Santos-Roig, and M. P.
Berm├║dez. "Psychometric properties of a Spanish adaptation of the
matching familiar figures test (MFFT-20)", European Journal of
Psychological Assessment, vol. 19(2), pp. 151-159, 2003.
[32] J. Miyakawa, "Performance on Matching Familiar Figures Test,
classroom behaviors, and school achievements of elementary school
children in Japan", Japanese Journal of Psychology, 72, 2001.
[33] G.A. Gunter and R.F. Kenny, "Digital booktalk: Digital media for
reluctant readers". Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher
Education - Current Practices, 2008, in Press.
[34] D. Siever, "Audio-visual entrainment: Applying audio-visual
entrainment technology for attention and learning", Available:
http://www.mindalive.com. Accessed October 17, 2007.
[35] D.A. Waring, C.B. Farthing, and P. Kidder-Ashley, "Impulsive response
style affects in computer administered multiple choice test performance".
Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1999, June.
[36] J. D. Fletcher, "Effectiveness and cost of video disc instruction".
Machine Mediated Learning., vol. 3, pp. 361-385, 1991.
[37] M. A. Okun, W.M. Callistus, and L.B. Knoblock, "Adult age differences
in cognitive tempo". Annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco. ERIC Document Reproduction
Service ED 174 632, 1999.
[38] J.C. Wright and A.G. Vliestra, "Reflection-impulsivity and informationprocessing
from three to nine years of age". In M. Fine (ed.),
Intervention with Hyperactivity. Springfield IL: Thomas, 1977.
[39] R. F. Kenny., The Effects of Cognitive Style and Gender on Verbatim
And Gist Memory for Rapidly-Presented Montage Video. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 2002.
[40] R.F. Kenny, Evaluating cognitive tempo In the digital age, Educational
Technology research and Development, DOI: 10.1007/s11423-007-
9035-8, 2007, March 13.
[41] R.F. Kenny, G.A. Gunter, "Enhancing literacy skills through digital
narrative", The Journal of Media Literacy, 2006.
[42] R. Feuerstein, Instrumental Enrichment: An Intervention for Cognitive
Modificability. Glenview, IL: Scott, Forseman and Co, 1980.
[43] M Joos, "The styles of the five clocks". In R.D. Abrahams and R.C.
Troike (Eds.) Language and Cultural Diversity in American Education.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
[44] R.K. Payne, "Understanding and working with children from poverty".
Instructional Leader. Vol. 9(2). Available:
http://homepages.wmich.edu/~ljohnson/Payne.pdf. Accessed April 24,
2007
[45] R. Payne, P. Devol, P., and Y.D. Smith, Bridges Out of Poverty:
Strategies for Professionals and Communities (2nd ed.). New York: Aha
Process, 2000.
[46] G.A. Shelly, T.J. Cashman, R.E. Gunter, and G.A. Gunter, Teachers
Discovering Computers: Integrating Technology and Digital Media in
the Classroom (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology, 2008.
[47] M. Squire, "Video games in education", International Journal of
Simulations and Gaming. Available:
http://simschiilresources.edreform.net, Accessed October 1, 2007.
[48] J. Swenson, C.A. Rozema, E. McGrail, and P. Whitin, "Beliefs about
technology and the preparation of English teachers: Beginning the
conversation", Available Online] Contemporary Issues in Technology
and Teacher Education, vol. 5(3/4). Available:
http://www.citejournal.org/vol5/iss3/languagearts/article1.cfm, Accessed
June 28, 2007.
[49] J.V. Oakhil and N.M. Yuill, "Higher order factors in comprehensive
disability: Processes and remediation". In C. Cornoldi and J.V. Oakhill
(Eds.), Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Processes and
Remediation, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, 1996.
[50] J.A. Bulgren and B.K. Lenz, "Strategic instruction in the content areas".
In D. D. Dreshler, E.S. Ellis, and B.K. Lenz (Eds.). Teaching
Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: Strategies and Methods (2nd
ed.), in E. L Deci, R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan, "A meta-analytic
review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on
intrinsic motivation". Psychological Bulletin, vol. 125, pp. 627-668,
1999.
[51] M. Vansteenkiste, J. Simons, W. Lens, K.M. Sheldon, and E.L. Deci,
"Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic
effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts".
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 87, pp. 246-260,
2004.
[52] C. McKnight, A. Magid, T.J. Murphy, and M. McKnight, Mathematics
Education Research: A Guide for the Research Mathematician.
Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, 2000.
[53] D. Reinking, "Multimedia learning of reading". In R.E. Mayer (ed)., The
Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 355-374, 2005.
[54] K. Eriksson, "Booktalk Dilemmas: Teachers' organisation of pupils'
reading". Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, vol. 46(4), pp.
391-408, 2002.
[55] S. Krashen.,"Accelerated reader: Does it work? If so, why?". School
Libraries in Canada, vol. 22(2), pp. 24-26, 2002.
[56] R. Kenny, "Growing up digital: Implications for teaching and learning".
The iDMAa Journal, vol. 2(2), 2005.
[57] National Reading Panel. (2000), "Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading
and its implications for reading instruction". National Institute of Health,
Available: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm.
Accessed July 25, 2007.
[1] W. J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technology of the Word. London,
Routledge, 1982.
[2] M. Prensky, Digital Games-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2001.
[3] K.S. Cennamo, W.C. Saveneye, and P.L. Smith, "Mental effort and
video-based learning: The relationship between preconceptions and the
effects of interactive and covert practice". Educational Technology
Research and Development, vol. 39, pp.5-16, 1988.
[4] N. Cowan, "Children's memories according to fuzzy-trace theory: An
endorsement of the theories purpose and some suggestions to improve its
application". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 71(2), pp.
144-154, 1998.
[5] M.A. Greenwald, "A survey of reading instrument usage in New Jersey
Public School Reading Programs, Grades K-12". ERIC Document
Reproduction Service: ED 056 844, 1972.
[6] J. M. Healy, Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children-s
Minds and What We Can Do about It, New York: Simon and Schuster,
1988.
[7] A. Lang and M. Basil, "Attention, resource allocation, and
communication research: What do secondary task reaction times
measure anyway?" In M. Roloff (ed.) Mass Communication Yearbook.
Beverly Hills Ca: Sage, p. 21, 1998.
[8] Lang, P. Bolls, R. Potter, and K. Kawahara, "The effects of production
pacing and arousing content on the information processing of television
messages". Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, vol. 43(4),
pp. 451-468, 1999.
[9] A. Lang, S. Zhou, N. Schwartz, P. Bolis, and R. Potter, "The effects of
edits on arousal, attention, and memory for television messages: When
an edit is an edit, can an edit be too much?", Journal of Broadcasting
and Electronic Media, vol. 44(1), pp. 94-109, 2000.
[10] D. Tapscott, Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.
[11] K. M. Bradt, Story As a Way of Knowing., Kansas City, MO: Sheed and
Ward, 1997.
[12] J. Bruner, Actual Minds Possible Worlds. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1986.
[13] B.W. Mott, C.B. Callaway, and L.S. Zetlemoyer, "Towards narrativecentered
learning environments", Available:
http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/253172.html. Accessed: October 31, 2007.
[14] R. Kenny, R. and G.A. Gunter, "Literacy through the arts". Paper
presented at the 28th Annual Conference of AECT, Orlando, FL, 2005,
November.
[15] M. Neiderman, R. Kenny, A. Sanchez, and M. Croft, "A changing
narrative paradigm". Presentation made at the Broadcast Education
Association Annual Conference. Las Vegas, NV, April 22, 2005.
[16] D. E. Barrett, Reflection-impulsivity as a predictor of children-s
academic achievement", Child Development, vol. 48(8), pp. 1443-1447,
1977.
[17] M. Spinella, and W.M. Miley, "Impulsivity and academic achievement
in college students". College Student Journal, 2003, December.
[18] M. Gladwell, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big
Difference. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2000.
[19] M. McLuhan. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
[20] R. Doman, "Learning problems and attention deficits", Journal of the
National Academy for Child Development, vol. 4(6), 1984.
[21] M. Shichida., Science of Intelligence and Creativity. Emigrant, MT:
Oatmeal Angels, 1994.
[22] R.M. Restak, The New Brain: How the Modern Age Is Rewiring Your
Mind. New York: Rodale St. Martins Press, 2003.
[23] J. Kagan, B.L. Rosman, D. Day, J. Albert, and W. Phillips, "Information
processing in the child: Significance of analytical and reflective
attitudes", Psychological Monographs, vol. 78(1), 1964.
[24] L. Cooper., "Strategies for visual comparison and representation:
Individual differences", Advances in Psychology of Human
Performance. R.J. Sternberg, (ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum,
1982.
[25] J.G. Hedberg and S.E. McNamara, "Matching feedback and cognitive
style in visual CAI tasks", Annual Meeting of the American Educational
Research Association (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: No. ED
260 105), Chicago, IL, 1985, March 31 - April 4.
[26] E.H. Ridberg, R.D. Parke, and E.M. Hetherington, "Modification of
impulsive and reflective cognitive styles through observation of filmmediated
models", Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 5(3), pp.
369-377, 1970.
[27] D.S. Campbell and R. B. Davis, "On the validity of reflectionimpulsivity
as a construct in classroom research", Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New York. ERIC
Document Reproduction Service: No. ED 222 502), (1982, March).
[28] J.J.G. van Merriënboer, "Instructional strategies for teaching computer
programming: Interactions with the cognitive style reflectionimpulsivity",
Journal of Research on Computing in Education, vol.
23(1), 1990.
[29] J. Cairns and T. Cammock, "The development of a more reliable version
of the Matching Familiar Figures Test". Developmental Psychology, vol.
5, pp. 555-560, 1978.
[30] J. Cairns and T. Cammock, "The 20-item matching familiar figures test".
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service: No. 015681-4), 1984.
[31] G. Buela-Casal, H. Carretero-Dios, M. del os Santos-Roig, and M. P.
Berm├║dez. "Psychometric properties of a Spanish adaptation of the
matching familiar figures test (MFFT-20)", European Journal of
Psychological Assessment, vol. 19(2), pp. 151-159, 2003.
[32] J. Miyakawa, "Performance on Matching Familiar Figures Test,
classroom behaviors, and school achievements of elementary school
children in Japan", Japanese Journal of Psychology, 72, 2001.
[33] G.A. Gunter and R.F. Kenny, "Digital booktalk: Digital media for
reluctant readers". Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher
Education - Current Practices, 2008, in Press.
[34] D. Siever, "Audio-visual entrainment: Applying audio-visual
entrainment technology for attention and learning", Available:
http://www.mindalive.com. Accessed October 17, 2007.
[35] D.A. Waring, C.B. Farthing, and P. Kidder-Ashley, "Impulsive response
style affects in computer administered multiple choice test performance".
Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1999, June.
[36] J. D. Fletcher, "Effectiveness and cost of video disc instruction".
Machine Mediated Learning., vol. 3, pp. 361-385, 1991.
[37] M. A. Okun, W.M. Callistus, and L.B. Knoblock, "Adult age differences
in cognitive tempo". Annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco. ERIC Document Reproduction
Service ED 174 632, 1999.
[38] J.C. Wright and A.G. Vliestra, "Reflection-impulsivity and informationprocessing
from three to nine years of age". In M. Fine (ed.),
Intervention with Hyperactivity. Springfield IL: Thomas, 1977.
[39] R. F. Kenny., The Effects of Cognitive Style and Gender on Verbatim
And Gist Memory for Rapidly-Presented Montage Video. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 2002.
[40] R.F. Kenny, Evaluating cognitive tempo In the digital age, Educational
Technology research and Development, DOI: 10.1007/s11423-007-
9035-8, 2007, March 13.
[41] R.F. Kenny, G.A. Gunter, "Enhancing literacy skills through digital
narrative", The Journal of Media Literacy, 2006.
[42] R. Feuerstein, Instrumental Enrichment: An Intervention for Cognitive
Modificability. Glenview, IL: Scott, Forseman and Co, 1980.
[43] M Joos, "The styles of the five clocks". In R.D. Abrahams and R.C.
Troike (Eds.) Language and Cultural Diversity in American Education.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
[44] R.K. Payne, "Understanding and working with children from poverty".
Instructional Leader. Vol. 9(2). Available:
http://homepages.wmich.edu/~ljohnson/Payne.pdf. Accessed April 24,
2007
[45] R. Payne, P. Devol, P., and Y.D. Smith, Bridges Out of Poverty:
Strategies for Professionals and Communities (2nd ed.). New York: Aha
Process, 2000.
[46] G.A. Shelly, T.J. Cashman, R.E. Gunter, and G.A. Gunter, Teachers
Discovering Computers: Integrating Technology and Digital Media in
the Classroom (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology, 2008.
[47] M. Squire, "Video games in education", International Journal of
Simulations and Gaming. Available:
http://simschiilresources.edreform.net, Accessed October 1, 2007.
[48] J. Swenson, C.A. Rozema, E. McGrail, and P. Whitin, "Beliefs about
technology and the preparation of English teachers: Beginning the
conversation", Available Online] Contemporary Issues in Technology
and Teacher Education, vol. 5(3/4). Available:
http://www.citejournal.org/vol5/iss3/languagearts/article1.cfm, Accessed
June 28, 2007.
[49] J.V. Oakhil and N.M. Yuill, "Higher order factors in comprehensive
disability: Processes and remediation". In C. Cornoldi and J.V. Oakhill
(Eds.), Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Processes and
Remediation, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, 1996.
[50] J.A. Bulgren and B.K. Lenz, "Strategic instruction in the content areas".
In D. D. Dreshler, E.S. Ellis, and B.K. Lenz (Eds.). Teaching
Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: Strategies and Methods (2nd
ed.), in E. L Deci, R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan, "A meta-analytic
review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on
intrinsic motivation". Psychological Bulletin, vol. 125, pp. 627-668,
1999.
[51] M. Vansteenkiste, J. Simons, W. Lens, K.M. Sheldon, and E.L. Deci,
"Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic
effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts".
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 87, pp. 246-260,
2004.
[52] C. McKnight, A. Magid, T.J. Murphy, and M. McKnight, Mathematics
Education Research: A Guide for the Research Mathematician.
Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, 2000.
[53] D. Reinking, "Multimedia learning of reading". In R.E. Mayer (ed)., The
Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 355-374, 2005.
[54] K. Eriksson, "Booktalk Dilemmas: Teachers' organisation of pupils'
reading". Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, vol. 46(4), pp.
391-408, 2002.
[55] S. Krashen.,"Accelerated reader: Does it work? If so, why?". School
Libraries in Canada, vol. 22(2), pp. 24-26, 2002.
[56] R. Kenny, "Growing up digital: Implications for teaching and learning".
The iDMAa Journal, vol. 2(2), 2005.
[57] National Reading Panel. (2000), "Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading
and its implications for reading instruction". National Institute of Health,
Available: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm.
Accessed July 25, 2007.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:55112", author = "Robert F. Kenny", title = "Digital Narrative as a Change Agent to Teach Reading to Media-Centric Students", abstract = "Because today-s media centric students have adopted
digital as their native form of communication, teachers are having
increasingly difficult time motivating reluctant readers to read and
write. Our research has shown these text-averse individuals can learn
to understand the importance of reading and writing if the instruction
is based on digital narratives. While these students are naturally
attracted to story, they are better at consuming them than creating
them. Therefore, any intervention that utilizes story as its basis needs
to include instruction on the elements of story making. This paper
presents a series of digitally-based tools to identify potential
weaknesses of visually impaired visual learners and to help motivate
these and other media-centric students to select and complete books
that are assigned to them", keywords = "Cognitive tempo, digital narratives, digital Booktalk", volume = "1", number = "11", pages = "639-9", }
