Deployment of a Biocompatible International Space Station into Geostationary Orbit
This study explores the possibility of a space station that will occupy a geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) and create artificial gravity using centripetal acceleration. The concept of the station is to create a habitable, safe environment that can increase the possibility of space tourism by reducing the wide variation of hazards associated with space exploration. The ability to control the intensity of artificial gravity through Hall-effect thrusters will allow experiments to be carried out at different levels of artificial gravity. A feasible prototype model was built to convey the concept and to enable cost estimation. The SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket with a 26,700 kg payload to GEO was selected to take the 675 tonne spacecraft into orbit; space station construction will require up to 30 launches, this would be reduced to 5 launches when the SpaceX BFR becomes available. The estimated total cost of implementing the Sussex Biocompatible International Space Station (BISS) is approximately $47.039 billion, which is very attractive when compared to the cost of the International Space Station, which cost $150 billion.
[1] A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Appolo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, Washington DC: NASA History division, 2000.
[2] D. J. Shayler, Walking in Space, New York: Springer: 2004 edition, 2004.
[3] L. J. DeLucas, “International Space Station,” Acta Astronautica , vol. 38, no. 4- 8, pp. 61-619, 1996.
[4] R. Zimmerman, Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel, Washington: Joseph Henry Press; 1st edition, 2003.
[5] S. B. Curtis, “Relating Space Radiation Environments to Risk Estimates,” in Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation Part B, New York, Plenum Press, 1993, pp. 817-830.
[6] R. Setlow, “The Hazards of Space Travel,” EMBO Reports, vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 1-3, 2003.
[7] J. Curtis and S. B. Letaw, “Galactic cosmic rays and cell-hit frequencies outside the magnetosphere,” Adv. Space Red, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 293-298, 1989.
[8] P. Todd, M. Pecaut and M. Fleshner, “Combined effects of space flight factors and radiation on humans,” Mutat. Res, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 210-220, 1999.
[9] C. Poivey, “Radiation Hardness Assurance for Space Systems,” NASA GSFC, vol. 1, no. 1, pp 16-25, 2002.
[10] P. Fortescue, G. Swinerd and J. Stark, Spacecraft Systems Engineering, Oxford: Wiley; 4 edition, pp. 40-49, 2011.
[11] G. Clément, A. Bukley, W. Paloski, (2007) The Gravity Of The Situation. In: Clément G., Bukley A. (eds) Artificial Gravity. The Space Technology Library, vol 20, pp. 1-32. Springer, New York, NY
[12] J. V. Meck and et al, “Marked exacerbation of orthostatic intolerance after long - vs. short-duration spaceflight in veteran astronauts,” Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 63, pp. p 865-873, 2001.
[13] G. Glement, Fundamentals of Space Medicine 2nd ed, New Yord: Springer - Verlag New York, pp. 113 123 2011
[14] R. T. Jennings , “Treatment efficacy of intramuscular promethazine for space motion sicknes,” Aviat. Space Environ. Med , vol. 64, no. 3, pp. p 230 233, 1993.
[15] L. Young, Y. Kazuyoshi and W. Paloski, "Artificial Gravity Research To Enable Human Space Exploration," International Academy of Astronautics, Paris, 2009.
[16] T. W. Hall, “Artificial Gravity Visualization, Empathy, and Design,” 2nd International Space Architecture Symposium, vol. 19, no. 21, pp. 4-14, 2006.
[17] P. R. Hill and E. Schnitzer, “Rotating Manned Space Stations,” Astronautics, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. 14-18, 1962.
[18] A. Graybiel, “Some Physiological Effects of Alternation Between Zero Gravity and One Gravity,” in Space Manufacturing Facilities (Space Colonies): Proceedings of the Princeton / AIAA NASA Conference May 7-9, Reston, Virginia, American Institue of Aeronautics and Astronautics, pp. 137-149, 1977.
[19] J. R. Lackner and P. DiZIO, “Coordinated Turn-and-Reach Movements. I. Anticipatory Compensation for Self-Generated Coriolis and Interaction Torques,” Journal of Neurophysiology, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 276-289, 2003.
[20] Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences et al, Protecting the Space Station from Meteoroids and Orbital Debris, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, pp. 7-13, 1997
[21] D. J. Kessler et al, “Meteoroids and Orbital Debris,” in Space Station Program Natural Environment Definition for Design, Houston, Texas, National Aeronautics and Space Administration pp. 155-168, 1994.
[22] E. L. Christiansen, “Design and performance equations for advanced meteoroid and debris shields,” International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol. 14, no. 1-4, pp. 145-156, 1993.
[23] Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee, “IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidlines,” Steering Group and Working Group 4, 2007.
[24] L. J. Adams, “Principal Findings and Recommendations,” in Technology for Small Spacecraft, Washington D.C., National Academy Press, pp. 17-20, 1994.
[25] J. N. Pelton, “The Space Debris Threat and the Kessler Syndrome,” in Space Debris and Other Threats from Outer Space, New York, Springer, pp. 17-23, 2013.
[26] M. McKinnon, “A History of Garabage in Space,” Gizmodo, 5th July 2014. (Online). Available: http://gizmodo.com/a-history-of-garbage-in-space-1572783046. (Accessed 15th April 2017).
[27] D. Mehrholz and L. Leushacke, “Detecting, Tracking and Imaging Space Debris,” in ESA Bulletin, Paris, ESA, pp. 128-134, 2002.
[28] A. Rossi, E. M. Alessi and G. B. Valsecchi, “Disposal Strategies Analysis for MEO Orbits,” University of Southampton, Southhampton, 2015.
[29] E. L. Christian, “Handbook for Designing MMOD Protection,” NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, pp. 44-44, 2009.
[30] M. Langford, “What is Space Radiation,” Space Radiation Analysis Group, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-1 2014.
[31] G. Walter and W. Barendsen, “Effects of Different Ionizing Radiations on Human Cells in Tissue Culture: IV. Modification of Radiation Damage,” Radiation Research, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 314-328, 1964.
[32] E. M. Soop, Handbook of Geostationary Orbits, New York: Springer; Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed, pp. 7-10 1994.
[33] S. K. Aghara, S. I. Sriprisan, R. C. Singleterry and T. Sato, “Shielding evaluation for solar particle events using MCNPX, PHITS and OLTARIS codes,” Life Sciences in Space Research, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 79-91, 2015.
[34] E. J. Hall, “Radiation Biolody for Pediatric Radiologists,” Alara Concept in Pediatric Imaging: Oncology, vol. 1, no. 39, pp. 57-64, 2009.
[35] B. B. Ravinarayana et al, “Total Radiation Dose at Geostationary Orbit,” IEEE Transactions On Nuclear Science, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 530-534, 2005.
[36] P. L. Barry, “Plastic Spaceships,” NASA Science News, 25 August 2005.
[37] A. T. Sheila et al, “Radiation Shielding Materials Containing Hydrogen,Boron, and Nitrogen: Systematic Computational and Experimental Study - Phase 1,” Rochester Institute of Technology, New York, pp.17, 2012.
[38] D. Rapp, “Radiation Effects and Shielding Requirements in Human Missions to the Moon and Mars,” The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 46-71, 2006.
[39] M. M. Finchenor and D. Dooling, Multilayer Insulation Materials Guidelines, Alabama: NASA, pp. 1-4 1999.
[40] Space Studies Board et al, Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration: Report of a Workshop, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2006.
[41] R. Nave, “Hyperphysics,” 2017. (Online). Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/orbv.html. (Accessed 12th April 2017).
[42] Delft University of Technology, “ScienceDaily,” ScienceDaily, 23rd May 2008. (Online). Available: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080521112119.htm. (Accessed 12th April 2017).
[43] E. J. O'Flaherty, “Modeling Normal Aging Bone Loss, with Consideration of Bone Loss in Osteoporosis,” Toxicotogical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 55, pp. 171-188, 2000.
[44] A. W. Rupert, “Human Performance,” in The Cosmic Compendium: Space Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina, Lulu.com, 2015, pp. 1-7.
[45] S. M. Schneider et al, “Training with the International Space Station interim resistive exercise device,” Medical Science Sport Exercise, vol. 11, no. 35, 2003.
[46] T. W. Hall, “Artificial Gravity and the Architecture of Orbital Habitats,” JBIS, vol. 52, no. 7/8, pp. 290-300, 1999.
[47] M. V. Eerde, “Deriving the centripetal acceleration formula,” Microsoft Developer, 24th January 2010. (Online). Available: https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/matthew_van_eerde/2010/01/24/deriving-the-centripetal-acceleration-formula/. (Accessed 13th April 2017).
[48] A. Dubrow, “Shields To Maximum,” TACC, 25th June 2013. (Online). Available: https://www.tacc.utexas.edu/-/shields-to-maximum-mr-scott. (Accessed 20th April 2017).
[49] D. Kim, “Space Food,” NASA, 25th November 2003. (Online). Available: https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/living/spacefood/. (Accessed 15th April 2017).
[50] T. A. G. Wood, “International Space Station’s Solar Panels Have a No-Fail Mission,” UrtheCast, 27th February 2012. (Online). Available: https://blog.urthecast.com/company/international-space-stations-solar-panels-have-a-no-fail-mission/. (Accessed 14th April 2017).
[51] R. R. King et al, “Advanced III-V Multijunction Cells For Space,” Spectrolab, Hawaii, 2006.
[52] D. Estublier, S. Giorgio and A. Gonzalez, "Electric Propulsion," in Electric Propulsion on SMART-1, Noordwijk, esa bulletin, 2007, p. 45.
[53] D. M. Goebel and I. Katz, “Hall Thrusters,” in Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters, California, JPL Space Science and Technology Series, 2008, pp. 325-379.
[54] T. Trott, "Comparison of Orbital Launch Systems," Perfect Astronomy, 6th December 2013. (Online). Available: http://perfectastronomy.com/comparison-nasa-orbital-launch-systems/. (Accessed 20th April 2017).
[55] L. Allen, “U.S. Life-Cycle Funding Requirements,” United States General Accounting Office, Washington D.C, 1998.
[56] S. L. Blum, Aerospace Cost savings - Implications for NASA and the Industry, National Academies, 1975.
[57] E. Gaddy, “Cost performance of multi-junction, gallium arsenide, and siliconsolar cells on spacecraft,” in IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Washington D. C., 1996.
[58] Indeed, “NASA Salaries in the United States,” 12th April 2017. (Online). Available: April. (Accessed 18th April 2017).
[1] A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Appolo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, Washington DC: NASA History division, 2000.
[2] D. J. Shayler, Walking in Space, New York: Springer: 2004 edition, 2004.
[3] L. J. DeLucas, “International Space Station,” Acta Astronautica , vol. 38, no. 4- 8, pp. 61-619, 1996.
[4] R. Zimmerman, Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel, Washington: Joseph Henry Press; 1st edition, 2003.
[5] S. B. Curtis, “Relating Space Radiation Environments to Risk Estimates,” in Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation Part B, New York, Plenum Press, 1993, pp. 817-830.
[6] R. Setlow, “The Hazards of Space Travel,” EMBO Reports, vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 1-3, 2003.
[7] J. Curtis and S. B. Letaw, “Galactic cosmic rays and cell-hit frequencies outside the magnetosphere,” Adv. Space Red, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 293-298, 1989.
[8] P. Todd, M. Pecaut and M. Fleshner, “Combined effects of space flight factors and radiation on humans,” Mutat. Res, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 210-220, 1999.
[9] C. Poivey, “Radiation Hardness Assurance for Space Systems,” NASA GSFC, vol. 1, no. 1, pp 16-25, 2002.
[10] P. Fortescue, G. Swinerd and J. Stark, Spacecraft Systems Engineering, Oxford: Wiley; 4 edition, pp. 40-49, 2011.
[11] G. Clément, A. Bukley, W. Paloski, (2007) The Gravity Of The Situation. In: Clément G., Bukley A. (eds) Artificial Gravity. The Space Technology Library, vol 20, pp. 1-32. Springer, New York, NY
[12] J. V. Meck and et al, “Marked exacerbation of orthostatic intolerance after long - vs. short-duration spaceflight in veteran astronauts,” Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 63, pp. p 865-873, 2001.
[13] G. Glement, Fundamentals of Space Medicine 2nd ed, New Yord: Springer - Verlag New York, pp. 113 123 2011
[14] R. T. Jennings , “Treatment efficacy of intramuscular promethazine for space motion sicknes,” Aviat. Space Environ. Med , vol. 64, no. 3, pp. p 230 233, 1993.
[15] L. Young, Y. Kazuyoshi and W. Paloski, "Artificial Gravity Research To Enable Human Space Exploration," International Academy of Astronautics, Paris, 2009.
[16] T. W. Hall, “Artificial Gravity Visualization, Empathy, and Design,” 2nd International Space Architecture Symposium, vol. 19, no. 21, pp. 4-14, 2006.
[17] P. R. Hill and E. Schnitzer, “Rotating Manned Space Stations,” Astronautics, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. 14-18, 1962.
[18] A. Graybiel, “Some Physiological Effects of Alternation Between Zero Gravity and One Gravity,” in Space Manufacturing Facilities (Space Colonies): Proceedings of the Princeton / AIAA NASA Conference May 7-9, Reston, Virginia, American Institue of Aeronautics and Astronautics, pp. 137-149, 1977.
[19] J. R. Lackner and P. DiZIO, “Coordinated Turn-and-Reach Movements. I. Anticipatory Compensation for Self-Generated Coriolis and Interaction Torques,” Journal of Neurophysiology, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 276-289, 2003.
[20] Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences et al, Protecting the Space Station from Meteoroids and Orbital Debris, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, pp. 7-13, 1997
[21] D. J. Kessler et al, “Meteoroids and Orbital Debris,” in Space Station Program Natural Environment Definition for Design, Houston, Texas, National Aeronautics and Space Administration pp. 155-168, 1994.
[22] E. L. Christiansen, “Design and performance equations for advanced meteoroid and debris shields,” International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol. 14, no. 1-4, pp. 145-156, 1993.
[23] Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee, “IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidlines,” Steering Group and Working Group 4, 2007.
[24] L. J. Adams, “Principal Findings and Recommendations,” in Technology for Small Spacecraft, Washington D.C., National Academy Press, pp. 17-20, 1994.
[25] J. N. Pelton, “The Space Debris Threat and the Kessler Syndrome,” in Space Debris and Other Threats from Outer Space, New York, Springer, pp. 17-23, 2013.
[26] M. McKinnon, “A History of Garabage in Space,” Gizmodo, 5th July 2014. (Online). Available: http://gizmodo.com/a-history-of-garbage-in-space-1572783046. (Accessed 15th April 2017).
[27] D. Mehrholz and L. Leushacke, “Detecting, Tracking and Imaging Space Debris,” in ESA Bulletin, Paris, ESA, pp. 128-134, 2002.
[28] A. Rossi, E. M. Alessi and G. B. Valsecchi, “Disposal Strategies Analysis for MEO Orbits,” University of Southampton, Southhampton, 2015.
[29] E. L. Christian, “Handbook for Designing MMOD Protection,” NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, pp. 44-44, 2009.
[30] M. Langford, “What is Space Radiation,” Space Radiation Analysis Group, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-1 2014.
[31] G. Walter and W. Barendsen, “Effects of Different Ionizing Radiations on Human Cells in Tissue Culture: IV. Modification of Radiation Damage,” Radiation Research, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 314-328, 1964.
[32] E. M. Soop, Handbook of Geostationary Orbits, New York: Springer; Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed, pp. 7-10 1994.
[33] S. K. Aghara, S. I. Sriprisan, R. C. Singleterry and T. Sato, “Shielding evaluation for solar particle events using MCNPX, PHITS and OLTARIS codes,” Life Sciences in Space Research, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 79-91, 2015.
[34] E. J. Hall, “Radiation Biolody for Pediatric Radiologists,” Alara Concept in Pediatric Imaging: Oncology, vol. 1, no. 39, pp. 57-64, 2009.
[35] B. B. Ravinarayana et al, “Total Radiation Dose at Geostationary Orbit,” IEEE Transactions On Nuclear Science, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 530-534, 2005.
[36] P. L. Barry, “Plastic Spaceships,” NASA Science News, 25 August 2005.
[37] A. T. Sheila et al, “Radiation Shielding Materials Containing Hydrogen,Boron, and Nitrogen: Systematic Computational and Experimental Study - Phase 1,” Rochester Institute of Technology, New York, pp.17, 2012.
[38] D. Rapp, “Radiation Effects and Shielding Requirements in Human Missions to the Moon and Mars,” The International Journal of Mars Science and Exploration, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 46-71, 2006.
[39] M. M. Finchenor and D. Dooling, Multilayer Insulation Materials Guidelines, Alabama: NASA, pp. 1-4 1999.
[40] Space Studies Board et al, Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration: Report of a Workshop, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2006.
[41] R. Nave, “Hyperphysics,” 2017. (Online). Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/orbv.html. (Accessed 12th April 2017).
[42] Delft University of Technology, “ScienceDaily,” ScienceDaily, 23rd May 2008. (Online). Available: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080521112119.htm. (Accessed 12th April 2017).
[43] E. J. O'Flaherty, “Modeling Normal Aging Bone Loss, with Consideration of Bone Loss in Osteoporosis,” Toxicotogical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 55, pp. 171-188, 2000.
[44] A. W. Rupert, “Human Performance,” in The Cosmic Compendium: Space Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina, Lulu.com, 2015, pp. 1-7.
[45] S. M. Schneider et al, “Training with the International Space Station interim resistive exercise device,” Medical Science Sport Exercise, vol. 11, no. 35, 2003.
[46] T. W. Hall, “Artificial Gravity and the Architecture of Orbital Habitats,” JBIS, vol. 52, no. 7/8, pp. 290-300, 1999.
[47] M. V. Eerde, “Deriving the centripetal acceleration formula,” Microsoft Developer, 24th January 2010. (Online). Available: https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/matthew_van_eerde/2010/01/24/deriving-the-centripetal-acceleration-formula/. (Accessed 13th April 2017).
[48] A. Dubrow, “Shields To Maximum,” TACC, 25th June 2013. (Online). Available: https://www.tacc.utexas.edu/-/shields-to-maximum-mr-scott. (Accessed 20th April 2017).
[49] D. Kim, “Space Food,” NASA, 25th November 2003. (Online). Available: https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/living/spacefood/. (Accessed 15th April 2017).
[50] T. A. G. Wood, “International Space Station’s Solar Panels Have a No-Fail Mission,” UrtheCast, 27th February 2012. (Online). Available: https://blog.urthecast.com/company/international-space-stations-solar-panels-have-a-no-fail-mission/. (Accessed 14th April 2017).
[51] R. R. King et al, “Advanced III-V Multijunction Cells For Space,” Spectrolab, Hawaii, 2006.
[52] D. Estublier, S. Giorgio and A. Gonzalez, "Electric Propulsion," in Electric Propulsion on SMART-1, Noordwijk, esa bulletin, 2007, p. 45.
[53] D. M. Goebel and I. Katz, “Hall Thrusters,” in Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters, California, JPL Space Science and Technology Series, 2008, pp. 325-379.
[54] T. Trott, "Comparison of Orbital Launch Systems," Perfect Astronomy, 6th December 2013. (Online). Available: http://perfectastronomy.com/comparison-nasa-orbital-launch-systems/. (Accessed 20th April 2017).
[55] L. Allen, “U.S. Life-Cycle Funding Requirements,” United States General Accounting Office, Washington D.C, 1998.
[56] S. L. Blum, Aerospace Cost savings - Implications for NASA and the Industry, National Academies, 1975.
[57] E. Gaddy, “Cost performance of multi-junction, gallium arsenide, and siliconsolar cells on spacecraft,” in IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Washington D. C., 1996.
[58] Indeed, “NASA Salaries in the United States,” 12th April 2017. (Online). Available: April. (Accessed 18th April 2017).
@article{"International Journal of Mechanical, Industrial and Aerospace Sciences:79878", author = "Tim Falk and Chris Chatwin", title = "Deployment of a Biocompatible International Space Station into Geostationary Orbit", abstract = "This study explores the possibility of a space station that will occupy a geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) and create artificial gravity using centripetal acceleration. The concept of the station is to create a habitable, safe environment that can increase the possibility of space tourism by reducing the wide variation of hazards associated with space exploration. The ability to control the intensity of artificial gravity through Hall-effect thrusters will allow experiments to be carried out at different levels of artificial gravity. A feasible prototype model was built to convey the concept and to enable cost estimation. The SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket with a 26,700 kg payload to GEO was selected to take the 675 tonne spacecraft into orbit; space station construction will require up to 30 launches, this would be reduced to 5 launches when the SpaceX BFR becomes available. The estimated total cost of implementing the Sussex Biocompatible International Space Station (BISS) is approximately $47.039 billion, which is very attractive when compared to the cost of the International Space Station, which cost $150 billion.
", keywords = "Artificial gravity, biocompatible, geostationary orbit, space station. ", volume = "14", number = "9", pages = "456-14", }
