Closing the Achievement Gap Within Reading and Mathematics Classrooms by Fostering Hispanic Students- Educational Resilience
While many studies have conducted the achievement
gap between groups of students in school districts, few studies have
utilized resilience research to investigate achievement gaps within
classrooms. This paper aims to summarize and discuss some recent
studies Waxman, Padr├│n, and their colleagues conducted, in which
they examined learning environment differences between resilient
and nonresilient students in reading and mathematics classrooms.
The classes consist of predominantly Hispanic elementary school
students from low-income families. These studies all incorporated
learning environment questionnaires and systematic observation
methods. Significant differences were found between resilient and
nonresilient students on their classroom learning environments and
classroom behaviors. The observation results indicate that the amount
and quality of teacher and student academic interaction are two of the
most influential variables that promote student outcomes. This paper
concludes by suggesting the following teacher practices to promote
resiliency in schools: (a) using feedback from classroom observation
and learning environment measures, (b) employing explicit teaching
practices; and (c) understanding students on a social and personal
level.
[1] H. C. Waxman, Y. N. Padrón, and A. García, "Educational issues and
effective practices for Hispanic students," in Narrowing the achievement
gap: Strategies for educating Latino, Black and Asian students, S. J.
Paik and H. J. Walberg, Eds. New York: Springer, 2007, pp. 131-151.
[2] S. J. Condly, "Resilience in children: A review of the literature with
implications for education," Urban Education, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 211-
236, May 2006.
[3] E. W. Gordon and B. M. Mejia, "Resilience as a factor in overcoming
obstacles," in Optimizing student success in school with the other three
Rs: Reasoning, resilience, and responsibility, R. J. Sternberg and R. F.
Subotnik, Eds. Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2006, pp. 143-175.
[4] H. C. Waxman, Y. N. Padr├│n, and J. P. Gray, Eds., Educational
resiliency: Student, teacher, and school perspectives. Greenwich, CT:
Information Age, 2004.
[5] A. Sacker and I. Schoon, "Educational resilience in later life: resources
and assets in adolescence and return to education after leaving school at
age 16," Social Science Research, vol. 36, pp. 873-896, July 2007.
[6] S. Goldstein and R. B. Brooks, Eds, Handbook of resilience in children.
New York: Springer, 2006.
[7] B. Benard, "Turnaround teachers and schools," in Closing the
achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices, 2nd ed. B.
Williams, Ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 2003, pp. 115-137.
[8] J. B. Manning, and J. A. Kovach, "The continuing challenges of
excellence and equity," in Closing the achievement gap: A vision for
changing beliefs and practices, 2nd ed. B. Williams, Ed. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003,
pp. 25-47.
[9] H. C. Waxman, R. G. Tharp, and R. S. Hilberg, Eds. Observational
research in U. S. classrooms: New approaches for understanding
cultural and linguistic diversity. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
[10] H. C. Waxman and H.-L. Chang, L., "Mixed method approaches for
examining classroom learning environments for resilient and nonresilient
students in urban elementary schools," in Contemporary approaches to
research on learning environments: Worldviews, D. L. Fisher and M. S.
Khine, Eds. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishers, 2006, pp.
195-220.
[11] D. Allen and B. J. Fraser, "Parent and student perceptions of classroom
learning environment and its association with student outcomes,"
Learning Environments Research, vol. 10, pp. 67-82, Jan. 2007.
[12] B. J. Fraser and H. J. Walberg, "Research on teacher-student
relationships and learning environments: Context, retrospect and
prospect," International Journal of Educational Research, vol. 43, pp.
103-109, 2005.
[13] S. J. Wolf and B. J. Fraser, B. J. (2007). Learning environment, attitudes
and achievement among middle-school science students using inquirybased
laboratory activities. Research in Science Education, Online First.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/h18358k752803n26/fulltext.html
[14] S. L. Knight and H. C. Waxman, "Students' cognition and classroom
instruction," in Effective teaching: Current research, H. C. Waxman and
H. J. Walberg, Eds. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan, 1991, pp. 239-255.
[15] P. H. Winne and R. W. Marx, "Students' and teachers' views of thinking
processes for classroom learning," Elementary School Journal, vol. 82,
no. 5, pp. 493-518, May 1982.
[16] M. Wittrock. "Students' thought processes," in Handbook of research in
teaching, 3rd ed. M. Wittrock, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 1986, pp.
297-314.
[17] H. C. Waxman. "Investigating classroom and school learning
environments: A review of recent research and developments in the
field," Journal of Classroom Interaction, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1-4, 1991.
[18] R. C. Chavez, "The use of high inference measures to study classroom
climates: A review," Review of Educational Research, vol. 54, pp. 237-
261, Summer, 1984.
[19] R. A. Schultz, "Student importance ratings as indicator of structure of
actual and ideal sociopsychological climates," Journal of Educational
Psychology, vol. 71, pp. 827-839, Dec. 1979.
[20] P. Oldfather, "Songs "come back to most of them": Students' experiences
as researchers," Theory into Practice, vol. 34, pp. 131-137, Spring 1995.
[21] B. J. Fraser, "Students' perceptions of their classroom environments," in
Windows into science classrooms: Problems associated with higher-level
cognitive learning, K. Tobin, J. B. Kahle and B. J. Fraser, Eds. Bristol,
PA: Falmer, 1990, pp. 199-221.
[22] B. J. Fraser, "Research on classroom and school climate," in Handbook
of research on science teaching and learning, D. Gabel, Ed. New York:
Macmillan, 1994, pp. 493-541.
[23] B. J. Fraser and D. L. Fisher, D. L, "Predicting students' outcomes from
their perceptions of classroom psychosocial environment," American
Educational Research Journal, vol. 19, pp. 498-518, Winter 1982.
[24] G. D. Haertel, H. J. Walberg, and E. H. Haertel, "Sociopsychological
environments and learning: A quantitative synthesis," British
Educational Research Journal, vol. 7, pp. 27-36, 1981.
[25] D. Gijbels, G. van de Watering, F. Dochy, and P. van den Bossche,
"New learning environments and constructivism: The students-
perspective," Instructional Science, vol. 34, pp. 213-226, May 2006.
[26] T. Wubbels, "Student perceptions of teacher-student relationships in
class," International Journal of Educational Research, vol. 43, pp. 1-5,
2005.
[27] H. C. Waxman, "Systematic classroom observation," in Encyclopedia of
education, 2nd ed. J. W. Guthrie, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 2003, pp.
303-310.
[28] J. A. Stallings and G. G. Mohlman, "Classroom observation techniques,"
in Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An
International handbook, J. P. Keeves, Ed. Oxford, England: Pergamon,
1988, pp. 469-474.
[29] S. S. Stodolsky, "Classroom observation," in The new handbook of
teacher evaluation: Assessing elementary and secondary school
teachers, J. Millman and L. Darling-Hammond, Eds. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage, 1990, pp. 175-190.
[30] L. W. Anderson and R. B. Burns, Research in classrooms: The study of
teachers, teaching, and instruction. Oxford, England: Pergamon, 1989.
[31] H. C. Waxman and S. L. Huang, "Classroom observation research and
the improvement of teaching," in New directions for teaching practice
and research. H. C. Waxman and H. J. Walberg, Eds. Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1999, pp. 107-129.
[32] H. C. Waxman, "Classroom observations of effective teaching," in
Teaching: Theory into practice, A. C. Ornstein, Ed. Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1995, pp. 76-93.
[33] J. E. Brophy and T. L. Good, "Teacher behavior and student
achievement," in Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd ed. M. C.
Wittrock, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 1986, pp. 328-375.
[34] B. Rosenshine and R. Stevens, "Teaching functions," in Handbook of
research on teaching, 3rd ed. M. C. Wittrock, Ed. New York:
Macmillan, 1986, pp. 376-391.
[35] H. J. Walberg, "Generic practices," in Handbook of research on
improving student achievement, G. Cawelti, Ed. Arlington, VA:
Educational Research Services, 1995, pp. 7-19.
[36] N. Henderson and M. M. Milstein, Resiliency in schools: Making it
happen for students and educations, Updated edition. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin, 2003.
[37] G. D. Borman and L. T. Overman, "Academic resilience in mathematics
among poor and minority students," The Elementary School Journal,
vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 178-195, Jan. 2004.
[38] Q. Gu and C. Day, "Teachers resilience: a necessary condition for
effectiveness," Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 23, pp. 1302-
1316, Nov. 2007.
[39] B. Benard, Turning it around for all youth: From risk to resilience,
ERIC/CUE Digest No. 126, New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban
Education, 1997.
[40] J. H. McMillan and D. F. Reed, "At risk students and resiliency: Factors
contributing to academic success," The Clearing House, vol. 67, pp.
137-140, 1994.
[41] J. C. Wayman, "The utility of educational resilience for studying degree
attainment in school dropouts," Journal of Educational Research, vol.
95, pp. 167-178, 2002.
[42] C. Cefai, "Resilience for all: A study of classrooms as protective
contexts," Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, vol. 12, pp. 119-134,
Jun 2007.
[43] S. Howard, J. Dryden and B. Johnson, "Childhood resilience: Review
and critique of literature," Oxford Review of Education, vol. 25, pp. 307-
323, Sep. 1999.
[44] J. M. Gore, "Beyond our differences, a reassembling of what matters in
teacher education," Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 52, pp. 124-135,
Mar/Apr. 2001.
[45] C. Pierce, "Importance of classroom climate for at-risk learners,"
Journal of Educational Research, vol. 88, pp. 37-42, Sep/Oct. 1994.
[46] G. M. Morrison and M. R. Allen, "Promoting student resilience in
school contexts," Theory into Practice, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 162-169,
2007.
[47] H. C. Waxman, S. L. Huang, and M. C. Wang, "Investigating the
multilevel classroom learning environment of resilient and nonresilient
students from inner-city elementary schools," International Journal of
Educational Research, vol. 27, pp. 343-353, 1997.
[48] M. E. Uguroglu, and H. J. Walberg, "Predicting achievement and
motivation," Journal of Research and Development in Education, vol.
19, no. 3, pp. 1-12, 1986.
[49] D. L. Fisher and B. J. Fraser, "Validity and use of Classroom
Environment Scale," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol.
5, pp. 261-271, 1983.
[50] S. L. Knight and H. C. Waxman, "Investigating the effects of the
classroom learning environment on students' motivation in social
studies," Journal of Social Studies Research, vol. 14, pp. 1-12, 1990.
[51] B. J. Fraser, "Two decades of classroom environment research," in
Educational environments: Evaluation, antecedents and consequences,
B. J. Fraser and H. J. Walberg, Eds. Oxford, England: Pergamon, 1991,
pp. 3-27.
[52] Y. N. Padr├│n, H. C. Waxman, and S. L. Huang, "Classroom and
instructional learning environment differences between resilient and
non-resilient elementary school students." Journal of Education for
Students Placed at Risk of Failure, vol. 4, pp. 63-81, 1999.
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environment differences in inner-city middle school students," The
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climate instruments to assess and improve classroom psychosocial
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413, 1986.
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vol. 32, pp. 7-44, 1997.
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schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997.
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in urban elementary, middle, and high schools," Learning Environments
Research, vol. 1, pp. 95-113, 1998.
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Blankstein, R. W. Cole, and P. D. Houston, Eds. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin, 2007, pp. 59-81.
[1] H. C. Waxman, Y. N. Padrón, and A. García, "Educational issues and
effective practices for Hispanic students," in Narrowing the achievement
gap: Strategies for educating Latino, Black and Asian students, S. J.
Paik and H. J. Walberg, Eds. New York: Springer, 2007, pp. 131-151.
[2] S. J. Condly, "Resilience in children: A review of the literature with
implications for education," Urban Education, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 211-
236, May 2006.
[3] E. W. Gordon and B. M. Mejia, "Resilience as a factor in overcoming
obstacles," in Optimizing student success in school with the other three
Rs: Reasoning, resilience, and responsibility, R. J. Sternberg and R. F.
Subotnik, Eds. Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2006, pp. 143-175.
[4] H. C. Waxman, Y. N. Padr├│n, and J. P. Gray, Eds., Educational
resiliency: Student, teacher, and school perspectives. Greenwich, CT:
Information Age, 2004.
[5] A. Sacker and I. Schoon, "Educational resilience in later life: resources
and assets in adolescence and return to education after leaving school at
age 16," Social Science Research, vol. 36, pp. 873-896, July 2007.
[6] S. Goldstein and R. B. Brooks, Eds, Handbook of resilience in children.
New York: Springer, 2006.
[7] B. Benard, "Turnaround teachers and schools," in Closing the
achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices, 2nd ed. B.
Williams, Ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 2003, pp. 115-137.
[8] J. B. Manning, and J. A. Kovach, "The continuing challenges of
excellence and equity," in Closing the achievement gap: A vision for
changing beliefs and practices, 2nd ed. B. Williams, Ed. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003,
pp. 25-47.
[9] H. C. Waxman, R. G. Tharp, and R. S. Hilberg, Eds. Observational
research in U. S. classrooms: New approaches for understanding
cultural and linguistic diversity. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
[10] H. C. Waxman and H.-L. Chang, L., "Mixed method approaches for
examining classroom learning environments for resilient and nonresilient
students in urban elementary schools," in Contemporary approaches to
research on learning environments: Worldviews, D. L. Fisher and M. S.
Khine, Eds. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishers, 2006, pp.
195-220.
[11] D. Allen and B. J. Fraser, "Parent and student perceptions of classroom
learning environment and its association with student outcomes,"
Learning Environments Research, vol. 10, pp. 67-82, Jan. 2007.
[12] B. J. Fraser and H. J. Walberg, "Research on teacher-student
relationships and learning environments: Context, retrospect and
prospect," International Journal of Educational Research, vol. 43, pp.
103-109, 2005.
[13] S. J. Wolf and B. J. Fraser, B. J. (2007). Learning environment, attitudes
and achievement among middle-school science students using inquirybased
laboratory activities. Research in Science Education, Online First.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.springerlink.com/content/h18358k752803n26/fulltext.html
[14] S. L. Knight and H. C. Waxman, "Students' cognition and classroom
instruction," in Effective teaching: Current research, H. C. Waxman and
H. J. Walberg, Eds. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan, 1991, pp. 239-255.
[15] P. H. Winne and R. W. Marx, "Students' and teachers' views of thinking
processes for classroom learning," Elementary School Journal, vol. 82,
no. 5, pp. 493-518, May 1982.
[16] M. Wittrock. "Students' thought processes," in Handbook of research in
teaching, 3rd ed. M. Wittrock, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 1986, pp.
297-314.
[17] H. C. Waxman. "Investigating classroom and school learning
environments: A review of recent research and developments in the
field," Journal of Classroom Interaction, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1-4, 1991.
[18] R. C. Chavez, "The use of high inference measures to study classroom
climates: A review," Review of Educational Research, vol. 54, pp. 237-
261, Summer, 1984.
[19] R. A. Schultz, "Student importance ratings as indicator of structure of
actual and ideal sociopsychological climates," Journal of Educational
Psychology, vol. 71, pp. 827-839, Dec. 1979.
[20] P. Oldfather, "Songs "come back to most of them": Students' experiences
as researchers," Theory into Practice, vol. 34, pp. 131-137, Spring 1995.
[21] B. J. Fraser, "Students' perceptions of their classroom environments," in
Windows into science classrooms: Problems associated with higher-level
cognitive learning, K. Tobin, J. B. Kahle and B. J. Fraser, Eds. Bristol,
PA: Falmer, 1990, pp. 199-221.
[22] B. J. Fraser, "Research on classroom and school climate," in Handbook
of research on science teaching and learning, D. Gabel, Ed. New York:
Macmillan, 1994, pp. 493-541.
[23] B. J. Fraser and D. L. Fisher, D. L, "Predicting students' outcomes from
their perceptions of classroom psychosocial environment," American
Educational Research Journal, vol. 19, pp. 498-518, Winter 1982.
[24] G. D. Haertel, H. J. Walberg, and E. H. Haertel, "Sociopsychological
environments and learning: A quantitative synthesis," British
Educational Research Journal, vol. 7, pp. 27-36, 1981.
[25] D. Gijbels, G. van de Watering, F. Dochy, and P. van den Bossche,
"New learning environments and constructivism: The students-
perspective," Instructional Science, vol. 34, pp. 213-226, May 2006.
[26] T. Wubbels, "Student perceptions of teacher-student relationships in
class," International Journal of Educational Research, vol. 43, pp. 1-5,
2005.
[27] H. C. Waxman, "Systematic classroom observation," in Encyclopedia of
education, 2nd ed. J. W. Guthrie, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 2003, pp.
303-310.
[28] J. A. Stallings and G. G. Mohlman, "Classroom observation techniques,"
in Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An
International handbook, J. P. Keeves, Ed. Oxford, England: Pergamon,
1988, pp. 469-474.
[29] S. S. Stodolsky, "Classroom observation," in The new handbook of
teacher evaluation: Assessing elementary and secondary school
teachers, J. Millman and L. Darling-Hammond, Eds. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage, 1990, pp. 175-190.
[30] L. W. Anderson and R. B. Burns, Research in classrooms: The study of
teachers, teaching, and instruction. Oxford, England: Pergamon, 1989.
[31] H. C. Waxman and S. L. Huang, "Classroom observation research and
the improvement of teaching," in New directions for teaching practice
and research. H. C. Waxman and H. J. Walberg, Eds. Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1999, pp. 107-129.
[32] H. C. Waxman, "Classroom observations of effective teaching," in
Teaching: Theory into practice, A. C. Ornstein, Ed. Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1995, pp. 76-93.
[33] J. E. Brophy and T. L. Good, "Teacher behavior and student
achievement," in Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd ed. M. C.
Wittrock, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 1986, pp. 328-375.
[34] B. Rosenshine and R. Stevens, "Teaching functions," in Handbook of
research on teaching, 3rd ed. M. C. Wittrock, Ed. New York:
Macmillan, 1986, pp. 376-391.
[35] H. J. Walberg, "Generic practices," in Handbook of research on
improving student achievement, G. Cawelti, Ed. Arlington, VA:
Educational Research Services, 1995, pp. 7-19.
[36] N. Henderson and M. M. Milstein, Resiliency in schools: Making it
happen for students and educations, Updated edition. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin, 2003.
[37] G. D. Borman and L. T. Overman, "Academic resilience in mathematics
among poor and minority students," The Elementary School Journal,
vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 178-195, Jan. 2004.
[38] Q. Gu and C. Day, "Teachers resilience: a necessary condition for
effectiveness," Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 23, pp. 1302-
1316, Nov. 2007.
[39] B. Benard, Turning it around for all youth: From risk to resilience,
ERIC/CUE Digest No. 126, New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban
Education, 1997.
[40] J. H. McMillan and D. F. Reed, "At risk students and resiliency: Factors
contributing to academic success," The Clearing House, vol. 67, pp.
137-140, 1994.
[41] J. C. Wayman, "The utility of educational resilience for studying degree
attainment in school dropouts," Journal of Educational Research, vol.
95, pp. 167-178, 2002.
[42] C. Cefai, "Resilience for all: A study of classrooms as protective
contexts," Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, vol. 12, pp. 119-134,
Jun 2007.
[43] S. Howard, J. Dryden and B. Johnson, "Childhood resilience: Review
and critique of literature," Oxford Review of Education, vol. 25, pp. 307-
323, Sep. 1999.
[44] J. M. Gore, "Beyond our differences, a reassembling of what matters in
teacher education," Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 52, pp. 124-135,
Mar/Apr. 2001.
[45] C. Pierce, "Importance of classroom climate for at-risk learners,"
Journal of Educational Research, vol. 88, pp. 37-42, Sep/Oct. 1994.
[46] G. M. Morrison and M. R. Allen, "Promoting student resilience in
school contexts," Theory into Practice, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 162-169,
2007.
[47] H. C. Waxman, S. L. Huang, and M. C. Wang, "Investigating the
multilevel classroom learning environment of resilient and nonresilient
students from inner-city elementary schools," International Journal of
Educational Research, vol. 27, pp. 343-353, 1997.
[48] M. E. Uguroglu, and H. J. Walberg, "Predicting achievement and
motivation," Journal of Research and Development in Education, vol.
19, no. 3, pp. 1-12, 1986.
[49] D. L. Fisher and B. J. Fraser, "Validity and use of Classroom
Environment Scale," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol.
5, pp. 261-271, 1983.
[50] S. L. Knight and H. C. Waxman, "Investigating the effects of the
classroom learning environment on students' motivation in social
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@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:56217", author = "Hersh C. Waxman and Yolanda N. Padrón and Jee-Young Shin and Héctor H. Rivera", title = "Closing the Achievement Gap Within Reading and Mathematics Classrooms by Fostering Hispanic Students- Educational Resilience", abstract = "While many studies have conducted the achievement
gap between groups of students in school districts, few studies have
utilized resilience research to investigate achievement gaps within
classrooms. This paper aims to summarize and discuss some recent
studies Waxman, Padr├│n, and their colleagues conducted, in which
they examined learning environment differences between resilient
and nonresilient students in reading and mathematics classrooms.
The classes consist of predominantly Hispanic elementary school
students from low-income families. These studies all incorporated
learning environment questionnaires and systematic observation
methods. Significant differences were found between resilient and
nonresilient students on their classroom learning environments and
classroom behaviors. The observation results indicate that the amount
and quality of teacher and student academic interaction are two of the
most influential variables that promote student outcomes. This paper
concludes by suggesting the following teacher practices to promote
resiliency in schools: (a) using feedback from classroom observation
and learning environment measures, (b) employing explicit teaching
practices; and (c) understanding students on a social and personal
level.", keywords = "achievement gap, classroom learning environments, educational resilience, systematic classroom observation", volume = "2", number = "4", pages = "283-11", }
