Use of Hair as an Indicator of Environmental Lead Pollution: Changes after Twenty Years of Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline
Lead (Pb) poisoning is one of the most common and
preventable environmental health problems. There are different
sources of environmental pollution with lead as lead alkyl additives
in petrol and manufacturing processes. Pb in the atmosphere can be
deposited in urban soils, and may then be re-suspended to re-enter the
atmosphere. This could increase human exposure to Pb and cause
long-term health effects. Thus, monitoring Pb pollution is considered
one of the major tasks in controlling pollution. Scalp hair can be
utilized for the determination of lead (Pb) concentration. It provides a
lasting record of metal intakes of weeks or even months, and for most
metals, their accumulation in hair reflects their accumulation in the
whole body. This work was conducted to investigate the
concentration of lead in male scalp hair of Cairo (residential-traffic
and residential-industrial) and rural residents after twenty years of
phasing out of leaded gasoline. Results indicated that the mean
concentration of lead in hair of residential-traffic (9.7552 μg/g ±0.71)
and residential-industrial (12.3288 μg/g ±1.13) was significantly
higher than that in rural residents (4.7327 μg/g ±0.67). The mean
concentration of lead in hair of resident’s industrial areas was the
highest among Cairo residents and not the traffic areas as it was
before phasing out of leaded gasoline. Twenty years of phasing out of
leaded gasoline in Cairo has greatly improved the lead pollution
among residents of traffic areas, but industrial areas residents were
still suffering from lead pollution, which needs more efforts to
control the sources of lead pollution.
[1] P. Ragan, and T. Turner, "Working to prevent lead poisoning in
children: getting the lead out," JAAPA : Official J. of the American
Academy of Physician Assistants, vol. 22, no.7, pp. 40–45, 2009.
[2] M.D. Sanborn, A. Abelsohn, M. Campbell, and E. Weir, "Identifying
and managing adverse environmental health effects: 3. Lead exposure,"
Canadian Medical Association J. vol. 166, no.10, pp. 1287–1292, 2002.
PMC 111081. PMID 12041847. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC111081/.
[3] L.D. White, D.A. Cory-Slechta, M.E. Gilbert, E. Tiffany-Castiglioni,
N.H. Zawia, M. Virgolini, A. Rossi-George, and S.M. Lasley, "New and
evolving concepts in the neurotoxicology of lead, Toxicology and
Applied Pharmacology, vol. 225, no.1, pp.1–27, 2007,
doi:10.1016/j.taap.2007.08.001. PMID 17904601.
[4] S.J. Flora, M. Mittal, and A. Mehta, "Heavy metal induced oxidative
stress & its possible reversal by chelation therapy," The Indian J. of
Medical Research, vol.128, no.4, pp. 501–523, 2008, PMID 19106443.
[5] S.K. Karri, R.B. Saper, and S.N. Kales, "Lead Encephalopathy Due to
Traditional Medicines," Current Drug Safety, vol. 3, no. 1, pp.54–
9,doi:10.2174/ 1574886087 83333907, 2008, PMC 2538609. PMID.
[6] P.J. Landrigan, C.B. Schechter, J.M. Lipton, M.C. Fahs, and J.
Schwartz, "Environmental pollutants and disease in American children,"
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol.110, no. 7, pp. 721–8, 2002,
PMC 1240919.PMID 12117650. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC1240919/.
[7] J.H. Graziano, "Validity of lead exposure markers in diagnosis and
surveillance,” Clin. Chem., vol. 40, pp.1387-1390, 1994.
[8] K. Radomska, A. Graczyk, J. Konarski, and A. Adamwicz, "Evaluation
of macro and micro element content in the human body determined by
hair analysis,” Pol. Iny. Lek., vol.46, pp.461-463,1991b.
[9] T. Suzuki, "Hair and nails. Advantages and pitfalls when used in
biological monitoring: in Clarkson TW, Fiberg I, Nordberg GF, Sager
PR eds: Biological monitoring of toxic metals,” Newyork, Plenum Press,
pp. 623-640, 1988.
[10] C.M. McLean, C.E. Koller, J.C. Rodger, and G.R. Mac Farlane,
"Mammalian hair as an accumulative bioindicator of metal
bioavailability in Australian terrestrial environments,” Science of the
Total Environment, vol. 407, pp. 3588- 3596, 2009.
[11] IAEA, "Application of hair as an indicator for trace element exposure in
man,” NAHRES 22, IAEA, 1994.
[12] C.S.C. Wong, and X.D. Li, "Pb contamination and isotopic composition
of urban soils in Hong Kong,” The Science of the Total Environment,
vol.319, pp. 185–195, 2004.
[13] T.M. Young, D.A. Heeraman, G. Sirin, and L.L. Ashbaugh,
"Resuspension of soil as a source of airborne lead near industrial
facilities and highways,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol.
36, pp. 2484–2490, 2002.
[14] J.O. Nriagu, and J.M. Pacyna, "Quantitative assessment of worldwide
contamination of air, water and soils by trace metals,” Nature, vol. 333,
pp.134–139, 1988.
[15] J.M. Pacyna, "Source inventories for atmospheric trace metals,” In:
Harrison, .M., Van Grieken, R. (Eds.), Atmospheric Particles, IUPAC
Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems,
Vol. 5. Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 385–423, 1998.
[16] M.S. Miller, S.K. Friedlander, and G.M. Hidy, "A chemical element
balance for the Pasadena aerosol,” J. of Colloid and Interface Science,
vol. 39, pp. 165–176, 1972.
[17] J.C. Chow, J.G. Waston, Z. Lu, D.H. Lowenthal, C.A. Frazier, P.A.
Solomon, and R.H. Thuiller, "Descriptive analysis of PM2.5 and PM10
at regionally representative elocations during SJVAQS/AUSPEX,”
Atmospheric Environment, vol. 30, pp. 2079–2112, 1996.
[18] W. Wang, X. Liu, L. Zhao, D. Guo, and Y. Lu, "Assessment of the
phase-out of leaded gasoline in Tianjin, China using isotope technique,”
China Environmental Science, vol. 23, no.6, pp. 627–630, 2003, (in
Chinese).
[19] Y. Sun, G. Zhuang, W. Zhang, Y. Wang, and Y. Zhuang,
"Characteristics and sources of lead pollution after phasing out leaded
gasoline in Beijing,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 40, pp. 2973–2985,
2006.
[20] WHO, "World Health Organization. The Country Cooperation Strategy
briefs,” This brief is available online at http://www.who.int/countryfocus
WHO/ DGR/CCO/09.03/Egypt, 2009.
[21] J. Popko, S. Olszewski, K. Hukalowicz, R. Markiewicz, M.H.
Borawska, and P. Szeparowicz, "Lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc
concentrations in blood and hair of mothers of children with loco motor
system malformations,” Polish J. of Environmental Studies, vol.12, no.
3, pp. 375-379, 2003.
[22] G.W. Snedecor, and W.G. Cochran, "Statistical Methods”, 7th Ed.
Oxford and IBIT public. Co. New York, 1980.
[23] E.A. Ali, and M.M. Nasralla, "Using hair as bioindicator for exposure to
heavy metals in the Egyptian environment,” Egyptian J. of Occupational
Medicine, vol. 14, no.2, pp. 287-292, 1990.
[24] EPA, "Air quality criteria for lead. EPA publication 600/8-83/028 df.
Environmental Protection Agency,” Research Triangle Park, NC USA,
1986.
[25] M. Murozumi, T.J. Chow, and C.C. Patterson, Geochim Cosmochim
Acta, vol. 33, pp.1247-1294, 1969.
[26] F.S.H. Rizk, and M.I.M. Khoder, "Decreased Lead Concentration in
Cairo Atmosphere Due to Use of Unleaded Gasoline,” CEJOEM, vol.7,
no.1, pp. 53-59, 2001.
[27] S.M. Robaa, "Urban –suburban/rural differences over greater Cairo,
Egypt,” Atmosphera, vol. 16, pp. 151-171, 2003.
[28] J. Sen, "Human scalp hair as an indicator of environmental lead
pollution and human exposure,” J. Hum. Ecol, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 133-14,
1996.
[29] D. S. Jamall, and P.V. Allen, "Use of hair as an indicator of
environmental lead pollution in women of child bearing age in Karachi,
Pakistan and Bangladish,” Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, vol. 44, pp.
350-356, 1990.
[30] N.E. Sharaf, A. Abdel-Shakour, N.M. Amer, and N. Khatab, "Evaluation
of Children’s Blood Lead Level in Cairo, Egypt,” American-Eurasian J.
Agric and Environ Sci., vol. 3, pp.414-419, 2008.
[31] M.A. Hassanein, A.A. Rieuwerts, A.A. Shakour, and A. Bitto, "Seasonal
and annual variations in air concentrations of Pb, Cd and PAH’s in
Cairo, Egypt,” Int. J. Environ. Health Res, vol.11, pp.13-27, 2001.
[32] G.M. Abdel Rasoul, M.A. Al-Batanony, O. A. Mahrous, M.E. Abo-
Salem, and H.M. Gabr, "Environmental Lead Exposure among Primary
School Children in Shebin El-Kom District, Menoufiya Governorate,
Egypt,” The International J. of Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, vol.3, no. 4, pp.186-194, October, 2012.
[33] S.M. Robaa, and Y. Hafez, "Monitoring urbanization growth in Cairo
city,” J. Eng. Appl. Sci., vol. 49, pp. 667-679, 2002.
[34] W.I. Mortada, M.A. Sobh, M.M. El-Defrawy, and S.E. Farahat,
"Reference intervals of cadmium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, hair
and nails among residents in Mansoura City, Nile Delta, Egypt,”
Environmental Research Section A, vol. 90, pp.104-110, 2002.
[35] E.E.A.A, "Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency,” Environmental
Protection Low no. 4, 1994, 1995.
[36] E.E.A.A, "Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency,” Egypt State of The
Environment Report 2006-2007, Part I, Chapter one: Air Pollution,
2006.
[37] A.S. Zakey, M.M. Abdel-Wahab, J.B.C. Pettersson, M.J. Gatari, and M.
Hallquist, "Seasonal and spatial variation of atmospheric particulate
matter in a developing mega city, the Greater Cairo, Egypt,”
Atmosphere, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 171-189, 2008.
[1] P. Ragan, and T. Turner, "Working to prevent lead poisoning in
children: getting the lead out," JAAPA : Official J. of the American
Academy of Physician Assistants, vol. 22, no.7, pp. 40–45, 2009.
[2] M.D. Sanborn, A. Abelsohn, M. Campbell, and E. Weir, "Identifying
and managing adverse environmental health effects: 3. Lead exposure,"
Canadian Medical Association J. vol. 166, no.10, pp. 1287–1292, 2002.
PMC 111081. PMID 12041847. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC111081/.
[3] L.D. White, D.A. Cory-Slechta, M.E. Gilbert, E. Tiffany-Castiglioni,
N.H. Zawia, M. Virgolini, A. Rossi-George, and S.M. Lasley, "New and
evolving concepts in the neurotoxicology of lead, Toxicology and
Applied Pharmacology, vol. 225, no.1, pp.1–27, 2007,
doi:10.1016/j.taap.2007.08.001. PMID 17904601.
[4] S.J. Flora, M. Mittal, and A. Mehta, "Heavy metal induced oxidative
stress & its possible reversal by chelation therapy," The Indian J. of
Medical Research, vol.128, no.4, pp. 501–523, 2008, PMID 19106443.
[5] S.K. Karri, R.B. Saper, and S.N. Kales, "Lead Encephalopathy Due to
Traditional Medicines," Current Drug Safety, vol. 3, no. 1, pp.54–
9,doi:10.2174/ 1574886087 83333907, 2008, PMC 2538609. PMID.
[6] P.J. Landrigan, C.B. Schechter, J.M. Lipton, M.C. Fahs, and J.
Schwartz, "Environmental pollutants and disease in American children,"
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol.110, no. 7, pp. 721–8, 2002,
PMC 1240919.PMID 12117650. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC1240919/.
[7] J.H. Graziano, "Validity of lead exposure markers in diagnosis and
surveillance,” Clin. Chem., vol. 40, pp.1387-1390, 1994.
[8] K. Radomska, A. Graczyk, J. Konarski, and A. Adamwicz, "Evaluation
of macro and micro element content in the human body determined by
hair analysis,” Pol. Iny. Lek., vol.46, pp.461-463,1991b.
[9] T. Suzuki, "Hair and nails. Advantages and pitfalls when used in
biological monitoring: in Clarkson TW, Fiberg I, Nordberg GF, Sager
PR eds: Biological monitoring of toxic metals,” Newyork, Plenum Press,
pp. 623-640, 1988.
[10] C.M. McLean, C.E. Koller, J.C. Rodger, and G.R. Mac Farlane,
"Mammalian hair as an accumulative bioindicator of metal
bioavailability in Australian terrestrial environments,” Science of the
Total Environment, vol. 407, pp. 3588- 3596, 2009.
[11] IAEA, "Application of hair as an indicator for trace element exposure in
man,” NAHRES 22, IAEA, 1994.
[12] C.S.C. Wong, and X.D. Li, "Pb contamination and isotopic composition
of urban soils in Hong Kong,” The Science of the Total Environment,
vol.319, pp. 185–195, 2004.
[13] T.M. Young, D.A. Heeraman, G. Sirin, and L.L. Ashbaugh,
"Resuspension of soil as a source of airborne lead near industrial
facilities and highways,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol.
36, pp. 2484–2490, 2002.
[14] J.O. Nriagu, and J.M. Pacyna, "Quantitative assessment of worldwide
contamination of air, water and soils by trace metals,” Nature, vol. 333,
pp.134–139, 1988.
[15] J.M. Pacyna, "Source inventories for atmospheric trace metals,” In:
Harrison, .M., Van Grieken, R. (Eds.), Atmospheric Particles, IUPAC
Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems,
Vol. 5. Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 385–423, 1998.
[16] M.S. Miller, S.K. Friedlander, and G.M. Hidy, "A chemical element
balance for the Pasadena aerosol,” J. of Colloid and Interface Science,
vol. 39, pp. 165–176, 1972.
[17] J.C. Chow, J.G. Waston, Z. Lu, D.H. Lowenthal, C.A. Frazier, P.A.
Solomon, and R.H. Thuiller, "Descriptive analysis of PM2.5 and PM10
at regionally representative elocations during SJVAQS/AUSPEX,”
Atmospheric Environment, vol. 30, pp. 2079–2112, 1996.
[18] W. Wang, X. Liu, L. Zhao, D. Guo, and Y. Lu, "Assessment of the
phase-out of leaded gasoline in Tianjin, China using isotope technique,”
China Environmental Science, vol. 23, no.6, pp. 627–630, 2003, (in
Chinese).
[19] Y. Sun, G. Zhuang, W. Zhang, Y. Wang, and Y. Zhuang,
"Characteristics and sources of lead pollution after phasing out leaded
gasoline in Beijing,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 40, pp. 2973–2985,
2006.
[20] WHO, "World Health Organization. The Country Cooperation Strategy
briefs,” This brief is available online at http://www.who.int/countryfocus
WHO/ DGR/CCO/09.03/Egypt, 2009.
[21] J. Popko, S. Olszewski, K. Hukalowicz, R. Markiewicz, M.H.
Borawska, and P. Szeparowicz, "Lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc
concentrations in blood and hair of mothers of children with loco motor
system malformations,” Polish J. of Environmental Studies, vol.12, no.
3, pp. 375-379, 2003.
[22] G.W. Snedecor, and W.G. Cochran, "Statistical Methods”, 7th Ed.
Oxford and IBIT public. Co. New York, 1980.
[23] E.A. Ali, and M.M. Nasralla, "Using hair as bioindicator for exposure to
heavy metals in the Egyptian environment,” Egyptian J. of Occupational
Medicine, vol. 14, no.2, pp. 287-292, 1990.
[24] EPA, "Air quality criteria for lead. EPA publication 600/8-83/028 df.
Environmental Protection Agency,” Research Triangle Park, NC USA,
1986.
[25] M. Murozumi, T.J. Chow, and C.C. Patterson, Geochim Cosmochim
Acta, vol. 33, pp.1247-1294, 1969.
[26] F.S.H. Rizk, and M.I.M. Khoder, "Decreased Lead Concentration in
Cairo Atmosphere Due to Use of Unleaded Gasoline,” CEJOEM, vol.7,
no.1, pp. 53-59, 2001.
[27] S.M. Robaa, "Urban –suburban/rural differences over greater Cairo,
Egypt,” Atmosphera, vol. 16, pp. 151-171, 2003.
[28] J. Sen, "Human scalp hair as an indicator of environmental lead
pollution and human exposure,” J. Hum. Ecol, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 133-14,
1996.
[29] D. S. Jamall, and P.V. Allen, "Use of hair as an indicator of
environmental lead pollution in women of child bearing age in Karachi,
Pakistan and Bangladish,” Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol, vol. 44, pp.
350-356, 1990.
[30] N.E. Sharaf, A. Abdel-Shakour, N.M. Amer, and N. Khatab, "Evaluation
of Children’s Blood Lead Level in Cairo, Egypt,” American-Eurasian J.
Agric and Environ Sci., vol. 3, pp.414-419, 2008.
[31] M.A. Hassanein, A.A. Rieuwerts, A.A. Shakour, and A. Bitto, "Seasonal
and annual variations in air concentrations of Pb, Cd and PAH’s in
Cairo, Egypt,” Int. J. Environ. Health Res, vol.11, pp.13-27, 2001.
[32] G.M. Abdel Rasoul, M.A. Al-Batanony, O. A. Mahrous, M.E. Abo-
Salem, and H.M. Gabr, "Environmental Lead Exposure among Primary
School Children in Shebin El-Kom District, Menoufiya Governorate,
Egypt,” The International J. of Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, vol.3, no. 4, pp.186-194, October, 2012.
[33] S.M. Robaa, and Y. Hafez, "Monitoring urbanization growth in Cairo
city,” J. Eng. Appl. Sci., vol. 49, pp. 667-679, 2002.
[34] W.I. Mortada, M.A. Sobh, M.M. El-Defrawy, and S.E. Farahat,
"Reference intervals of cadmium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, hair
and nails among residents in Mansoura City, Nile Delta, Egypt,”
Environmental Research Section A, vol. 90, pp.104-110, 2002.
[35] E.E.A.A, "Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency,” Environmental
Protection Low no. 4, 1994, 1995.
[36] E.E.A.A, "Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency,” Egypt State of The
Environment Report 2006-2007, Part I, Chapter one: Air Pollution,
2006.
[37] A.S. Zakey, M.M. Abdel-Wahab, J.B.C. Pettersson, M.J. Gatari, and M.
Hallquist, "Seasonal and spatial variation of atmospheric particulate
matter in a developing mega city, the Greater Cairo, Egypt,”
Atmosphere, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 171-189, 2008.
@article{"International Journal of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences:68062", author = "M. A. Abou Donia and A. A. K. Abou-Arab and Nevin E. Sharaf and A. K. Enab and Sherif R. Mohamed", title = "Use of Hair as an Indicator of Environmental Lead Pollution: Changes after Twenty Years of Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline", abstract = "Lead (Pb) poisoning is one of the most common and
preventable environmental health problems. There are different
sources of environmental pollution with lead as lead alkyl additives
in petrol and manufacturing processes. Pb in the atmosphere can be
deposited in urban soils, and may then be re-suspended to re-enter the
atmosphere. This could increase human exposure to Pb and cause
long-term health effects. Thus, monitoring Pb pollution is considered
one of the major tasks in controlling pollution. Scalp hair can be
utilized for the determination of lead (Pb) concentration. It provides a
lasting record of metal intakes of weeks or even months, and for most
metals, their accumulation in hair reflects their accumulation in the
whole body. This work was conducted to investigate the
concentration of lead in male scalp hair of Cairo (residential-traffic
and residential-industrial) and rural residents after twenty years of
phasing out of leaded gasoline. Results indicated that the mean
concentration of lead in hair of residential-traffic (9.7552 μg/g ±0.71)
and residential-industrial (12.3288 μg/g ±1.13) was significantly
higher than that in rural residents (4.7327 μg/g ±0.67). The mean
concentration of lead in hair of resident’s industrial areas was the
highest among Cairo residents and not the traffic areas as it was
before phasing out of leaded gasoline. Twenty years of phasing out of
leaded gasoline in Cairo has greatly improved the lead pollution
among residents of traffic areas, but industrial areas residents were
still suffering from lead pollution, which needs more efforts to
control the sources of lead pollution.
", keywords = "Heavy metals, lead, hair, biological sample, urban
pollution, rural pollution.", volume = "8", number = "9", pages = "670-5", }
