The Effect of Motor Learning Based Computer-Assisted Practice for Children with Handwriting Deficit – Comparing with the Effect of Traditional Sensorimotor Approach
The objective of this study was to test how advanced digital technology enables a more effective training on the handwriting of children with handwriting deficit. This study implemented the graphomotor apparatuses to a computer-assisted instruction system. In a randomized controlled trial, the experiments for verifying the intervention effect were conducted. Forty two children with handwriting deficit were assigned to computer-assisted instruction, sensorimotor training or control (no intervention) group. Handwriting performance was measured using the Elementary reading/writing test and computerized handwriting evaluation before and after 6 weeks of intervention. Analysis of variance of change scores were conducted to show whether statistically significant difference across the three groups. Significant difference was found among three groups. Computer group shows significant difference from the other two groups. Significance was denoted in near-point, far-point copy, dictation test, and writing from phonetic symbols. Writing speed and mean stroke velocity in near-, far-point and short paragraph copy were found significantly difference among three groups. Computer group shows significant improvement from the other groups. For clinicians and school teachers, the results of this study provide a motor control based insight for the improvement of handwriting difficulties.
[1] I. Phelps, L. Stemple, & G. Speck, G. “The children's handwriting scale:
A new diagnostic scale”, Journal of Educational Research, vol. 79, pp.
46-50, 1985.
[2] M. J. Weil & S. J. C. Amundson, “Relationships between visuomotor and
handwriting skills of children in kindergarten. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, vol. 48, pp. 982-988, 1994.
[3] K. McHale & S. A. Cermak, “Fine motor activities in elementary school:
preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine
motor problems”, American Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 46, pp.
898-903, 1992.
[4] M. H. Tseng & S. A. Cermak, “The influence of ergonomic factors and
perceptual-motor abilities on handwriting performance”, American
Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 47, pp. 919-926, 1993.
[5] M. H. Tseng & E. A. Murray, “Differences in perceptual-motor measures
between good and poor writers. American Journal of Occupational
Therapy, vol. 14, 19-36, 1994.
[6] M. J. M. Volman, B. M. Van Schendel, M. J. Jongmans, “Handwriting
difficulties in primary school children: a search for underlying
mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 60, pp.
451-460, 2006.
[7] M. D. Levine, F. Oberklaid, & L. Meltzer, ”Developmental output failure:
A study of low productivity in school-based children”, Pediatrics, vol. 67,
pp. 18-25, 1981.
[8] J. I. Laszlo & P. J. Bairstow, “Handwriting difficulties and possible
solutions”, School Psychology International, vol. 5, pp. 207-213, 1984.
[9] P. Sudsawad, C. A. Trombly, A. Henderson, & L. Tickle-Degnen,
“Testing the effect of kinesthetic training on handwriting performance in
first-grade students”, Am J Occup Ther, vol. 56, pp. 26-33, 2002.
[10] R. Karlsdottir & T. Stefansson, “Problems in developing functional
handwriting”, Percept Mot Skills, vol. 94, pp. 623-662, 2002.
[11] M. J. Jongmans, E. Linthorst-Bakker, Y. Westenberg, B. C. M.
Smits-Engelsman, “Use of a task-oriented self-instruction method to
support children in primary school with poor handwriting quality and
speed”, Hum Mov Sci, vol. 22, pp. 549–566, 2003.
[12] M. Lally, “Computer-assisted handwriting instruction and
visual/kinaesthetic feedback processes”, Applied Research in Mental
Retardation, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 397-405, 1982.
[13] P. L. Denton, S. Cope, & C. Moser, C. “The effect of Sensorimotor-Based
intervention versus Therapeutic practice on improving handwriting
performance in 6- to 11-year-old Children”, Am J Occup Ther, vol. 60, pp.
16-27, 2006.
[14] S. H. Chang & N. Y. Yu, "Evaluation and classification of types of
Chinese handwriting deficits in elementary schoolchildren", Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 101, 631-647, 2005.
[15] L. Hung, Y. W. Chang, S. F. Chen, C. S. Chen, & Y. D. Lee, Elementary
Reading and Writing test, Taipei: Psychological Co., Taipei, 2003.
[16] G. P. van Galen, S. J. Portier, B. C. M. Smits-Engelsman, & L. R.
Schomaker, “Neuromotor noise and poor handwriting in children”, Acta
Psychol, vol. 82, pp. 161-178, 1993.
[17] B. C. M. Smits-Engelsman, A. S. Niemeijer, & G. P. van Galen, “Fine
motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor
grapho-motor ability”, Human Movement Science, vol. 20, pp. 161-182,
2001.
[18] S. H. Chang & N. Y. Yu, “Characterization of motor control in handwriting difficulties in children with or without developmental
coordination disorder”, Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, vol.
52, no. 3, pp. 244-250, 2010.
[19] S. Rosenblum & M. Livneh-Zirinski, “Handwriting process and product
characteristics of children diagnosed with developmental coordination
disorder”, Hum Mov Sci, vol. 27, pp. 200-214, 2008.
[1] I. Phelps, L. Stemple, & G. Speck, G. “The children's handwriting scale:
A new diagnostic scale”, Journal of Educational Research, vol. 79, pp.
46-50, 1985.
[2] M. J. Weil & S. J. C. Amundson, “Relationships between visuomotor and
handwriting skills of children in kindergarten. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, vol. 48, pp. 982-988, 1994.
[3] K. McHale & S. A. Cermak, “Fine motor activities in elementary school:
preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine
motor problems”, American Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 46, pp.
898-903, 1992.
[4] M. H. Tseng & S. A. Cermak, “The influence of ergonomic factors and
perceptual-motor abilities on handwriting performance”, American
Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 47, pp. 919-926, 1993.
[5] M. H. Tseng & E. A. Murray, “Differences in perceptual-motor measures
between good and poor writers. American Journal of Occupational
Therapy, vol. 14, 19-36, 1994.
[6] M. J. M. Volman, B. M. Van Schendel, M. J. Jongmans, “Handwriting
difficulties in primary school children: a search for underlying
mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, vol. 60, pp.
451-460, 2006.
[7] M. D. Levine, F. Oberklaid, & L. Meltzer, ”Developmental output failure:
A study of low productivity in school-based children”, Pediatrics, vol. 67,
pp. 18-25, 1981.
[8] J. I. Laszlo & P. J. Bairstow, “Handwriting difficulties and possible
solutions”, School Psychology International, vol. 5, pp. 207-213, 1984.
[9] P. Sudsawad, C. A. Trombly, A. Henderson, & L. Tickle-Degnen,
“Testing the effect of kinesthetic training on handwriting performance in
first-grade students”, Am J Occup Ther, vol. 56, pp. 26-33, 2002.
[10] R. Karlsdottir & T. Stefansson, “Problems in developing functional
handwriting”, Percept Mot Skills, vol. 94, pp. 623-662, 2002.
[11] M. J. Jongmans, E. Linthorst-Bakker, Y. Westenberg, B. C. M.
Smits-Engelsman, “Use of a task-oriented self-instruction method to
support children in primary school with poor handwriting quality and
speed”, Hum Mov Sci, vol. 22, pp. 549–566, 2003.
[12] M. Lally, “Computer-assisted handwriting instruction and
visual/kinaesthetic feedback processes”, Applied Research in Mental
Retardation, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 397-405, 1982.
[13] P. L. Denton, S. Cope, & C. Moser, C. “The effect of Sensorimotor-Based
intervention versus Therapeutic practice on improving handwriting
performance in 6- to 11-year-old Children”, Am J Occup Ther, vol. 60, pp.
16-27, 2006.
[14] S. H. Chang & N. Y. Yu, "Evaluation and classification of types of
Chinese handwriting deficits in elementary schoolchildren", Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 101, 631-647, 2005.
[15] L. Hung, Y. W. Chang, S. F. Chen, C. S. Chen, & Y. D. Lee, Elementary
Reading and Writing test, Taipei: Psychological Co., Taipei, 2003.
[16] G. P. van Galen, S. J. Portier, B. C. M. Smits-Engelsman, & L. R.
Schomaker, “Neuromotor noise and poor handwriting in children”, Acta
Psychol, vol. 82, pp. 161-178, 1993.
[17] B. C. M. Smits-Engelsman, A. S. Niemeijer, & G. P. van Galen, “Fine
motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor
grapho-motor ability”, Human Movement Science, vol. 20, pp. 161-182,
2001.
[18] S. H. Chang & N. Y. Yu, “Characterization of motor control in handwriting difficulties in children with or without developmental
coordination disorder”, Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, vol.
52, no. 3, pp. 244-250, 2010.
[19] S. Rosenblum & M. Livneh-Zirinski, “Handwriting process and product
characteristics of children diagnosed with developmental coordination
disorder”, Hum Mov Sci, vol. 27, pp. 200-214, 2008.
@article{"International Journal of Medical, Medicine and Health Sciences:65460", author = "Shao-Hsia Chang and Nan-Ying Yu", title = "The Effect of Motor Learning Based Computer-Assisted Practice for Children with Handwriting Deficit – Comparing with the Effect of Traditional Sensorimotor Approach", abstract = "The objective of this study was to test how advanced digital technology enables a more effective training on the handwriting of children with handwriting deficit. This study implemented the graphomotor apparatuses to a computer-assisted instruction system. In a randomized controlled trial, the experiments for verifying the intervention effect were conducted. Forty two children with handwriting deficit were assigned to computer-assisted instruction, sensorimotor training or control (no intervention) group. Handwriting performance was measured using the Elementary reading/writing test and computerized handwriting evaluation before and after 6 weeks of intervention. Analysis of variance of change scores were conducted to show whether statistically significant difference across the three groups. Significant difference was found among three groups. Computer group shows significant difference from the other two groups. Significance was denoted in near-point, far-point copy, dictation test, and writing from phonetic symbols. Writing speed and mean stroke velocity in near-, far-point and short paragraph copy were found significantly difference among three groups. Computer group shows significant improvement from the other groups. For clinicians and school teachers, the results of this study provide a motor control based insight for the improvement of handwriting difficulties.
", keywords = "Dysgraphia, computerized handwriting evaluation, sensorimotor program, computer assisted program. ", volume = "7", number = "10", pages = "659-6", }
