Spatial Structure and Process of Arctic Warming and Land Cover Change in the Feedback Systems Framework
This paper examines the relationships between and
among the various drivers of climate change that have both climatic
and ecological consequences for vegetation and land cover change in
arctic areas, particularly in arctic Alaska. It discusses the various
processes that have created spatial and climatic structures that have
facilitated observable vegetation and land cover changes in the
Arctic. Also, it indicates that the drivers of both climatic and
ecological changes in the Arctic are multi-faceted and operate in a
system with both positive and negative feedbacks that largely results
in further increases or decreases of the initial drivers of climatic and
vegetation change mainly at the local and regional scales. It
demonstrates that the impact of arctic warming on land cover change
and the Arctic ecosystems is not unidirectional and one dimensional
in nature but it represents a multi-directional and multi-dimensional
forces operating in a feedback system.
[1] F.S. Chapin III, M. Sturm, M.C Serreze, J.P. McFadden, J.R. Key, A.H.
Lloyd, A.D. McGuire, T.S. Rupp, A.H. Lynch, J.P. Schimel, J. Beringer,
W.L. Chapman, H.E. Epstein, E.S. Euskirchen, L.D. Hinzman, G. Jia,
C-L. Ping, K.D. Tape, C.D.C Thompson, D.A. Walker, and J.M.
Welker. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic summer warming.
Science, Vol. 310, 2005, pp. 657-660.
[2] D.A Walker, M.K. Raynolds, F.J.A. Daniëls, E. Einarsson, A.
Elvebakk, W.A. Gould, A.E. Katenin, S.S. Kholod, C.J. Markon, E.S.
Melnikov, N.G. Moskalenko, S.S. Talbot, B.A. Yurtsev, and the other
members of the CAVM Team. The Circumpolar Arctic vegetation map.
Journal of Vegetation Science 16, 2005, pp. 267-282.
[3] M.C. Mack, E.A.G. Schuur, M. Bret-Harte, S., Shaver, G/R., and F.S.
Chapin III. Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by longterm
nutrient fertilization. Nature, Vol. 431, 2004, pp. 440-443.
www.nature.com/nature.
[4] Stow, D.A., A. Hope, D. McGuire, D. Verbyla, J. Gamon, F.
Huemmrich, S. Houston, C. Racine, M. Sturm, K. Tape, L. Hinzman,
K. Yosikawa, C. Tweedie, B. Noyle, C. Silapaswan, D. Douglas, B.
Griffith, G. Jia, H. Epstein, D. Walker, S. Daeschner, A. Peterson, L.
Zhou and R. Myneni. Remote sensing of vegetation and land cover
change in Arctic Tundra ecosystem. Remote sensing of environment.
Vol. 89, 2004, pp. 281-308.
[5] G.J. Jia, H.E. Epstein, and D.A. Walker. Journal of Vegetation Science.
Vol. 13, 2002, pp.315-326.
[6] F.S. Chapin III, G.R. Shaver, A.E. Giblin, K.J. Nadelhoffer and J.A.
Laundre. Response of Arctic tundra to experimental and observed
changes in climate. Ecology. Vol. 76(3), 1995, pp. 694-711.
[7] L.D. Hinzman, W.R. Neil Bettez, Bolton, F.S. Chapin, M.B. Dyurgerov,
C.L. Fastie, B. Griffith, D. Hollister, A. Hope, H.P. Huntington, A.M.
Jensen, G.J. Jia, T. Jorgenson, D.L. Kane, D.R. Klein1, G. Kofinas,
A.H. Lynch, A.H. Lloyd, A.D. Mcguire, F.E. Nelson, W.C. Oechel,,
T.E. Osterkamp, C.H. Racine, V.E. Romanovsky, R.S. Stone, D.A.
Stow, M. Sturm, C.E. Tweedie, G.L. Vourlitis, M.D. Walker, D.A.
Walker, P.J. Webber, J.M. Welker, K.S. Winker and K. Yoshikawa.
Evidence and implications of recent climate change in northern Alaska
and other arctic regions. Climatic Change, 72, 2005, pp. 251-298.
[8] R.A. Kerr. Climate change: Three degrees of consensus. Science, Vol.
305, No. 5686, 2004, pp. 932-934.
[9] O.M. Johannessen, L. Bengtsson, M.W. Miles, S.I. Kuzmina, V.A.
Semenov, G.V. Aleeksev, A.P. Nagurnyi, V.F. Zackharov, L.P.
Bobylev, L.H. Petersson, K. Hasselmann, and H.P. Cattle. Arctic climate
change: observed and modeled temperature and sea-ice variability.
Tellus, 56A, 2004, pp. 328-341.
[10] D. King. Climate change science: adapt, mitigate, or ignore? Science.
Vol. 303, 2004, pp. 176-177.
[11] G. Marland, R.A. Pielke, Sr., M. Apps, R. Avissar, R.A. Bett, K.J.
Davis, K. Kuappi, J. Katzenberger, K.G. MacDicken, R.P. Neilson, J.O.
Niles, D.D.S. Niyogi, R.J. Norby, N. Pena, N. Sampson and Y. Xue.
The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon management,
and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy. Climate
Policy, 3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[12] W.L. Chameides, and M. Bergin.. Soot takes center stage. Science, Vol.
297, 2002, pp. 2214-2215.
[13] T.V. Callaghan, L.O. Björn, Y. Chernov, T. Chapin, T.R. Christensen,
B. Huntley, R.A. Ims, M. Johansson, D. Jolly, S. Jonasson, N.
Matveyeva, N. Panikov, W. Oechel, G. Shaver, S. Schaphoff, S. Sitch,
and C. Zöckler. Climate change and UV-B impacts on arctic tundra and
polar desert ecosystems. Key findings and extended summaries. Ambio,
Vol. 33, No. 7, 2004, pp. 386-392.
[14] K. Tape, M. Sturm, and C. Racine. The evidence for shrub expansion in
northern Alaska and the Pan-Arctic. Global Change Biology, 12, 2006,
pp. 686-702.
[15] D.J. Thomson. The seasons, global temperature, and precession. Science,
New Series, Vol. 268, No. 5207, 1995, pp. 59-68.
[16] K.M. Lugina, P.Y. Groisman, K.Y. Vinnikov, V.V. Koknaeva, and
N.A. Speranskaya. Monthly surface air temperature time series areaaveraged
over the 30 degree latitudinal belts of the globe, 1881-2004,
2005. In Trends: A compendium of data on global change. Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
[17] T.J. Crowley. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years.
Science, Vol. 289, 2000, pp. 270-276.
[18] T.L. Delworth and T.R. Knutson. Simulation of early 20th century
global warming. Science, Vol. 287, 2000, pp. 2246-2250.
[19] R.A. Kerr. A new force in high-latitude climate. Science, Vol. 284,
1999, pp. 241-284.
[20] K.Y. Vinnikov, A. Robock, R.J. Stouffer, J.E. Walsh, C.L. Parkinson,
D.J. Cavalieri, J.F. Mitchell, D. Garret and V.F. Zakharov. Global
warming and Northern Hemisphere sea ice extent. Science, Vol. 286,
1999, pp. 1934-1937.
[21] S.F.B. Tett, P.A. Scott, M.R. Allen, W.J. Ingram, and J.F.B. Mitchell.
Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near the earth-s surface.
Nature, Vol. 300, 1999, pp. 569-573.
[22] J. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, and J. Leieveld. The missing
climate forcing [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Science, Vol. 352, No. 1350, 1997, pp. 231-241.
[23] J. Overpeck, K. Hughen, D. Hardy, R. Bradley, R. Case, M. Douglas, B.
Finney, K. Gajewski, G. Jacoby, A. Jennings, S. Lamoureux, A. Lasca,
G. MacDonald, J. Moore, M. Retelle, S. Smith, A. Wolfe, and G.
Zielinski. Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries.
Science, Vol. 278, 1997, pp. 1251-1256.
[24] R.A. Kerr. Studies say-tentatively-that greenhouse warming is here.
Science, Vol. 268, 1995, p. 1567.
[25] R. Kerr. Pollutant haze cools the greenhouse. Science, Vol. 255, 1992,
pp. 682-683.
[26] R.A. Kerr. Global temperature hits record again. Science, Vol. 251,
1991, p. 251.
[27] S. Manabe, M.J. Spelman, and R.J. Stouffer. Transient responses of a
coupled ocean-atmospheric model to gradual changes of atmospheric
CO2. Part II: Seasonal response. Journal of Climate, Vol. 5, 1992, pp.
105-126.
[28] R.A. Kerr. Is the greenhouse here? Science, Vol. 239, 1988, pp. 559-
561.
[29] G.R. Shaver, J. Canadell, F.S. Chapin , J. Gurevitch, J. Harte, G. Henry,
P. Ineson, S. Jonasson, J. Melillo, L. Pitelka, and L. Rustad. Global
warming and terrestrial ecosystems: A conceptual framework for
analysis. BioScience, Vol. 5, No. 10, 2000, pp. 871-882.
[30] E. Cluassen. An effect approach to climate change. Science, Vol. 306,
2004, pp. 816-817.
[31] R.W. Christopherson. Geosystems: An introduction to physical
geography. Fifth edition, Pearson education Inc., Upper Saddle. New
Jersey, 2003.
[32] A. Strahler and A. Strahler. Introducing physical geography. Third
edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, 2003.
[33] A. Getis, J. Getis, and J.D. Fellmann.. Introduction to Geography.
Eighth edition. The MacGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, New
York, 2002.
[34] W.C. Oechel and G.L. Vourlitis. The effects of climate change on landatmospheric
feedbacks in arctic tundra regions. Tree. Vol. 9, No. 9,
1994, pp.324-327.
[35] M.J. Jorgenson, C.H. Racine, J.C. Walters and T.E. Osterkamp.
Permafrost degradation and ecological changes associated with a
warming climate in Central Alaska. Climatic Change 48, 2001, pp. 551-
579.
[36] W.C. Oechel, S.J. Hastings, G. Vourlitis, M. Jenkins, G. Riechers, and
N. Grulke. Recent change of arctic tundra ecosystems from a net carbon
dioxide sink to a source. Nature. Vol. 361, 1993, pp.520-523.
[37] R. Aanes, B. Saeher, F.M. Smith, E.J. Cooper, P.A. Wookey and N.A.
Oritsland.. The Arctic Oscillation predicts effects of climate change in
two trophic levels in a high-arctic ecosystem. Ecology Letters, 5, 2002,
pp. 445-453.
[38] N.C. Stenseth, A. Mysterud, G. Ottersen, Hurrell, K-S. Chan and M.
Lima. Ecological effects of climate fluctuations. Science. Reviw:
Ecological and Climatology, Vol. 297, 2002, pp. 1292-1296.
[39] F.S. Chapin III, M. Syndonia, S.E. Hobbie, H. Zhong. Plant functional
types as predictors of transient responses of arctic vegetation to global
change. Journal of vegetation Science, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1996, pp. 347-358.
[40] J.E. Hansen, M. Sato, Lacis, A., R. Ruedy, I. Tegen, and E. Matthews.
Climate forcings in the Industrial era. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Vol.
95, 1998, pp. 12753-12758.
[41] X. Yin. The albedo of vegetated land surfaces: systems analysis and
mathematical modeling. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 60, 1997, pp. 121-140.
[42] M. Sturm, J. Holmgren, J.P. McFadden, G.E. Liston, F.S. Chapin, C.H.
Racine. Snow-Shrub interactions in arctic tundra: A hypothesis with
climate implications. Journal of Climate, Vol. 14., No. 3, 2001, pp. 336-
344.
[43] A.E. Hershey, S. Betty, K. Fortino, S. Kelly, M. Keyse, C. Lueke, W.J.
O-Brien and S.C. Whalen. Stable isotope signatures of bentic
invertebrates in arctic lakes indicate limited coupling to pelagic
production. Limnol. Oceanogr., 51(1), 2006, pp. 177-788.
[44] S.E. Hobbie, Miley, and M.S. Weiss.. Carbon and nitrogen in soil from
arctic and nonacidic tundra with different glacial histories in Northern
Alaska. Ecosystems 5, 2002, pp. 761-774.
[45] L. Gough, G.R. Shaver, J. Carroll, D.L. Royer and J.A. Laundre..
Journal of ecology, 88, 2000, pp. 54-66.
[46] R.J. Johnston. Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human
Geography since 1945 (fourth edition). Edward Arnold a division of
Hodder and Stoughton Limited, Kent, Tennessee, 1991.
[47] R. Abler, J.S. Adam and P. Gould. Spatial organization: The
Geographers view of the world. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1971.
[48] J.W. Pomeroy, D.S. Bewley, R.L.H. Essery, N.R. Hedstrom, T. Link,
R.J. Granger, J.E. Sicart, C.R. Ellis and J.R. Janowicz. Shrub tundra
snowmelt. Hydrol. Process. 20, 2006, pp. 923-941.
[1] F.S. Chapin III, M. Sturm, M.C Serreze, J.P. McFadden, J.R. Key, A.H.
Lloyd, A.D. McGuire, T.S. Rupp, A.H. Lynch, J.P. Schimel, J. Beringer,
W.L. Chapman, H.E. Epstein, E.S. Euskirchen, L.D. Hinzman, G. Jia,
C-L. Ping, K.D. Tape, C.D.C Thompson, D.A. Walker, and J.M.
Welker. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic summer warming.
Science, Vol. 310, 2005, pp. 657-660.
[2] D.A Walker, M.K. Raynolds, F.J.A. Daniëls, E. Einarsson, A.
Elvebakk, W.A. Gould, A.E. Katenin, S.S. Kholod, C.J. Markon, E.S.
Melnikov, N.G. Moskalenko, S.S. Talbot, B.A. Yurtsev, and the other
members of the CAVM Team. The Circumpolar Arctic vegetation map.
Journal of Vegetation Science 16, 2005, pp. 267-282.
[3] M.C. Mack, E.A.G. Schuur, M. Bret-Harte, S., Shaver, G/R., and F.S.
Chapin III. Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by longterm
nutrient fertilization. Nature, Vol. 431, 2004, pp. 440-443.
www.nature.com/nature.
[4] Stow, D.A., A. Hope, D. McGuire, D. Verbyla, J. Gamon, F.
Huemmrich, S. Houston, C. Racine, M. Sturm, K. Tape, L. Hinzman,
K. Yosikawa, C. Tweedie, B. Noyle, C. Silapaswan, D. Douglas, B.
Griffith, G. Jia, H. Epstein, D. Walker, S. Daeschner, A. Peterson, L.
Zhou and R. Myneni. Remote sensing of vegetation and land cover
change in Arctic Tundra ecosystem. Remote sensing of environment.
Vol. 89, 2004, pp. 281-308.
[5] G.J. Jia, H.E. Epstein, and D.A. Walker. Journal of Vegetation Science.
Vol. 13, 2002, pp.315-326.
[6] F.S. Chapin III, G.R. Shaver, A.E. Giblin, K.J. Nadelhoffer and J.A.
Laundre. Response of Arctic tundra to experimental and observed
changes in climate. Ecology. Vol. 76(3), 1995, pp. 694-711.
[7] L.D. Hinzman, W.R. Neil Bettez, Bolton, F.S. Chapin, M.B. Dyurgerov,
C.L. Fastie, B. Griffith, D. Hollister, A. Hope, H.P. Huntington, A.M.
Jensen, G.J. Jia, T. Jorgenson, D.L. Kane, D.R. Klein1, G. Kofinas,
A.H. Lynch, A.H. Lloyd, A.D. Mcguire, F.E. Nelson, W.C. Oechel,,
T.E. Osterkamp, C.H. Racine, V.E. Romanovsky, R.S. Stone, D.A.
Stow, M. Sturm, C.E. Tweedie, G.L. Vourlitis, M.D. Walker, D.A.
Walker, P.J. Webber, J.M. Welker, K.S. Winker and K. Yoshikawa.
Evidence and implications of recent climate change in northern Alaska
and other arctic regions. Climatic Change, 72, 2005, pp. 251-298.
[8] R.A. Kerr. Climate change: Three degrees of consensus. Science, Vol.
305, No. 5686, 2004, pp. 932-934.
[9] O.M. Johannessen, L. Bengtsson, M.W. Miles, S.I. Kuzmina, V.A.
Semenov, G.V. Aleeksev, A.P. Nagurnyi, V.F. Zackharov, L.P.
Bobylev, L.H. Petersson, K. Hasselmann, and H.P. Cattle. Arctic climate
change: observed and modeled temperature and sea-ice variability.
Tellus, 56A, 2004, pp. 328-341.
[10] D. King. Climate change science: adapt, mitigate, or ignore? Science.
Vol. 303, 2004, pp. 176-177.
[11] G. Marland, R.A. Pielke, Sr., M. Apps, R. Avissar, R.A. Bett, K.J.
Davis, K. Kuappi, J. Katzenberger, K.G. MacDicken, R.P. Neilson, J.O.
Niles, D.D.S. Niyogi, R.J. Norby, N. Pena, N. Sampson and Y. Xue.
The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon management,
and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy. Climate
Policy, 3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[12] W.L. Chameides, and M. Bergin.. Soot takes center stage. Science, Vol.
297, 2002, pp. 2214-2215.
[13] T.V. Callaghan, L.O. Björn, Y. Chernov, T. Chapin, T.R. Christensen,
B. Huntley, R.A. Ims, M. Johansson, D. Jolly, S. Jonasson, N.
Matveyeva, N. Panikov, W. Oechel, G. Shaver, S. Schaphoff, S. Sitch,
and C. Zöckler. Climate change and UV-B impacts on arctic tundra and
polar desert ecosystems. Key findings and extended summaries. Ambio,
Vol. 33, No. 7, 2004, pp. 386-392.
[14] K. Tape, M. Sturm, and C. Racine. The evidence for shrub expansion in
northern Alaska and the Pan-Arctic. Global Change Biology, 12, 2006,
pp. 686-702.
[15] D.J. Thomson. The seasons, global temperature, and precession. Science,
New Series, Vol. 268, No. 5207, 1995, pp. 59-68.
[16] K.M. Lugina, P.Y. Groisman, K.Y. Vinnikov, V.V. Koknaeva, and
N.A. Speranskaya. Monthly surface air temperature time series areaaveraged
over the 30 degree latitudinal belts of the globe, 1881-2004,
2005. In Trends: A compendium of data on global change. Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
[17] T.J. Crowley. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years.
Science, Vol. 289, 2000, pp. 270-276.
[18] T.L. Delworth and T.R. Knutson. Simulation of early 20th century
global warming. Science, Vol. 287, 2000, pp. 2246-2250.
[19] R.A. Kerr. A new force in high-latitude climate. Science, Vol. 284,
1999, pp. 241-284.
[20] K.Y. Vinnikov, A. Robock, R.J. Stouffer, J.E. Walsh, C.L. Parkinson,
D.J. Cavalieri, J.F. Mitchell, D. Garret and V.F. Zakharov. Global
warming and Northern Hemisphere sea ice extent. Science, Vol. 286,
1999, pp. 1934-1937.
[21] S.F.B. Tett, P.A. Scott, M.R. Allen, W.J. Ingram, and J.F.B. Mitchell.
Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near the earth-s surface.
Nature, Vol. 300, 1999, pp. 569-573.
[22] J. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, and J. Leieveld. The missing
climate forcing [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Science, Vol. 352, No. 1350, 1997, pp. 231-241.
[23] J. Overpeck, K. Hughen, D. Hardy, R. Bradley, R. Case, M. Douglas, B.
Finney, K. Gajewski, G. Jacoby, A. Jennings, S. Lamoureux, A. Lasca,
G. MacDonald, J. Moore, M. Retelle, S. Smith, A. Wolfe, and G.
Zielinski. Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries.
Science, Vol. 278, 1997, pp. 1251-1256.
[24] R.A. Kerr. Studies say-tentatively-that greenhouse warming is here.
Science, Vol. 268, 1995, p. 1567.
[25] R. Kerr. Pollutant haze cools the greenhouse. Science, Vol. 255, 1992,
pp. 682-683.
[26] R.A. Kerr. Global temperature hits record again. Science, Vol. 251,
1991, p. 251.
[27] S. Manabe, M.J. Spelman, and R.J. Stouffer. Transient responses of a
coupled ocean-atmospheric model to gradual changes of atmospheric
CO2. Part II: Seasonal response. Journal of Climate, Vol. 5, 1992, pp.
105-126.
[28] R.A. Kerr. Is the greenhouse here? Science, Vol. 239, 1988, pp. 559-
561.
[29] G.R. Shaver, J. Canadell, F.S. Chapin , J. Gurevitch, J. Harte, G. Henry,
P. Ineson, S. Jonasson, J. Melillo, L. Pitelka, and L. Rustad. Global
warming and terrestrial ecosystems: A conceptual framework for
analysis. BioScience, Vol. 5, No. 10, 2000, pp. 871-882.
[30] E. Cluassen. An effect approach to climate change. Science, Vol. 306,
2004, pp. 816-817.
[31] R.W. Christopherson. Geosystems: An introduction to physical
geography. Fifth edition, Pearson education Inc., Upper Saddle. New
Jersey, 2003.
[32] A. Strahler and A. Strahler. Introducing physical geography. Third
edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, 2003.
[33] A. Getis, J. Getis, and J.D. Fellmann.. Introduction to Geography.
Eighth edition. The MacGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, New
York, 2002.
[34] W.C. Oechel and G.L. Vourlitis. The effects of climate change on landatmospheric
feedbacks in arctic tundra regions. Tree. Vol. 9, No. 9,
1994, pp.324-327.
[35] M.J. Jorgenson, C.H. Racine, J.C. Walters and T.E. Osterkamp.
Permafrost degradation and ecological changes associated with a
warming climate in Central Alaska. Climatic Change 48, 2001, pp. 551-
579.
[36] W.C. Oechel, S.J. Hastings, G. Vourlitis, M. Jenkins, G. Riechers, and
N. Grulke. Recent change of arctic tundra ecosystems from a net carbon
dioxide sink to a source. Nature. Vol. 361, 1993, pp.520-523.
[37] R. Aanes, B. Saeher, F.M. Smith, E.J. Cooper, P.A. Wookey and N.A.
Oritsland.. The Arctic Oscillation predicts effects of climate change in
two trophic levels in a high-arctic ecosystem. Ecology Letters, 5, 2002,
pp. 445-453.
[38] N.C. Stenseth, A. Mysterud, G. Ottersen, Hurrell, K-S. Chan and M.
Lima. Ecological effects of climate fluctuations. Science. Reviw:
Ecological and Climatology, Vol. 297, 2002, pp. 1292-1296.
[39] F.S. Chapin III, M. Syndonia, S.E. Hobbie, H. Zhong. Plant functional
types as predictors of transient responses of arctic vegetation to global
change. Journal of vegetation Science, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1996, pp. 347-358.
[40] J.E. Hansen, M. Sato, Lacis, A., R. Ruedy, I. Tegen, and E. Matthews.
Climate forcings in the Industrial era. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Vol.
95, 1998, pp. 12753-12758.
[41] X. Yin. The albedo of vegetated land surfaces: systems analysis and
mathematical modeling. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 60, 1997, pp. 121-140.
[42] M. Sturm, J. Holmgren, J.P. McFadden, G.E. Liston, F.S. Chapin, C.H.
Racine. Snow-Shrub interactions in arctic tundra: A hypothesis with
climate implications. Journal of Climate, Vol. 14., No. 3, 2001, pp. 336-
344.
[43] A.E. Hershey, S. Betty, K. Fortino, S. Kelly, M. Keyse, C. Lueke, W.J.
O-Brien and S.C. Whalen. Stable isotope signatures of bentic
invertebrates in arctic lakes indicate limited coupling to pelagic
production. Limnol. Oceanogr., 51(1), 2006, pp. 177-788.
[44] S.E. Hobbie, Miley, and M.S. Weiss.. Carbon and nitrogen in soil from
arctic and nonacidic tundra with different glacial histories in Northern
Alaska. Ecosystems 5, 2002, pp. 761-774.
[45] L. Gough, G.R. Shaver, J. Carroll, D.L. Royer and J.A. Laundre..
Journal of ecology, 88, 2000, pp. 54-66.
[46] R.J. Johnston. Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human
Geography since 1945 (fourth edition). Edward Arnold a division of
Hodder and Stoughton Limited, Kent, Tennessee, 1991.
[47] R. Abler, J.S. Adam and P. Gould. Spatial organization: The
Geographers view of the world. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1971.
[48] J.W. Pomeroy, D.S. Bewley, R.L.H. Essery, N.R. Hedstrom, T. Link,
R.J. Granger, J.E. Sicart, C.R. Ellis and J.R. Janowicz. Shrub tundra
snowmelt. Hydrol. Process. 20, 2006, pp. 923-941.
@article{"International Journal of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences:56087", author = "Eric Kojo Wu Aikins", title = "Spatial Structure and Process of Arctic Warming and Land Cover Change in the Feedback Systems Framework", abstract = "This paper examines the relationships between and
among the various drivers of climate change that have both climatic
and ecological consequences for vegetation and land cover change in
arctic areas, particularly in arctic Alaska. It discusses the various
processes that have created spatial and climatic structures that have
facilitated observable vegetation and land cover changes in the
Arctic. Also, it indicates that the drivers of both climatic and
ecological changes in the Arctic are multi-faceted and operate in a
system with both positive and negative feedbacks that largely results
in further increases or decreases of the initial drivers of climatic and
vegetation change mainly at the local and regional scales. It
demonstrates that the impact of arctic warming on land cover change
and the Arctic ecosystems is not unidirectional and one dimensional
in nature but it represents a multi-directional and multi-dimensional
forces operating in a feedback system.", keywords = "Arctic Vegetation Change, Climate Change,
Feedback System, Spatial Process and Structure.", volume = "6", number = "12", pages = "763-7", }
