Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Enteric Bacteria Isolated from Water and Fish in Lake Victoria Basin of Western Kenya
A cross sectional study design and standard
microbiological procedures were used to determine the prevalence
and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Escherichia coli,
Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and Vibrio cholerae O1
isolated from water and two fish species Rastrineobola argentea and
Oreochromis niloticus collected from fish landing beaches and
markets in the Lake Victoria Basin of western Kenya. Out of 162
samples analyzed, 133 (82.1%) were contaminated, with S.
typhimurium as the most prevalent (49.6%), followed by E. coli
(46.6%), and lastly V. cholerae (2.8%). All the bacteria isolates were
sensitive to ciprofloxacin. E. coli isolates were resistant to ampicillin,
tetracycline, cotrimoxazole, chloramphenical and gentamicin while
S. typhimurium isolates exhibited resistance to ampicillin,
tetracycline, and cotrimoxazole. The V. cholerae O1 isolates were
resistant to tetracycline and ampicillin. The high prevalence of drug
resistant enteric bacteria in water and fish from the study region
needs public health intervention from the local government.
[1] B. A. McCormick, S. P. Colgan, C. Delp-Archer, S. I. Miller, and J. L.
Madara,. (1993) Salmonella typhimurium attachment to human intestinal
epithelial monolayers: Transcelluar signaling to subepithelial
neutrophile. Journal of Cell Biology. 123:895-907, 1993.
[2] K. K. Chao, C. C. Chao, and W. L. Chao. Suitability of the traditional
microbial indicators and their enumerating methods in the assessment of
fecal pollution of subtropical freshwater environments. Journal of
Microbiology Immunological Infection. vol 36, pp 288-293, 2003.
[3] E. E. Geldreich E. E. Bacterial populations and indicator concepts in
feces, sewage, storm water and solid wastes. In G. Berg (ed). Indicators
of viruses in water and food. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.,
Orlando, Fla. 1983, pp 51-97, 183.
[4] S. S. Gaikwad, and Y.Y. Parekh. Salmonellosis in the systemic form due
to multiple drug resistanct Salmonella typhimurium. Journal of
Postgraduate Medicine, vol. 30, pp. 159-162, 1984.
[5] Center for disease Control and Prevention. Division of epidemiology
and surveillance capacity development, Annual report. 2006.
[6] World Health Organization. Annon. "Cholera" (2010).
http://www.who.int/topics/cholere/en/index.html.
[7] R. L, Shapiro, P. Waiyaki, B. L. Nahlen, L. Slutsker, and R. O. Muga.
Transmission of Vibrio cholerae O1 in rural western Kenya associated
with drinking water from Lake Victoria: an environmental reservoir for
cholera. Am. J. of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Vol. 60, 271-276,
1999.
[8] J. C. Acosta, C. M. Galinndo, J. Kimario, K. Senkoro, and G. Urassa.
Cholera outbreak in southern Tanzania: risk factors and patterns of
transmission. Emergence of Infectious Diseases. Vol. 7(3), pp. 583-587,
2001.
[9] E. C. Ibezim. Microbial resistance to antibiotics. African journal of
Biotechnology Vol. 4 (13) pp. 1606-1611, 2005.
[10] D. P. Blake, K. Hillman, D. R. Fenlon, and J. Low. (2003). Transfer of
antibiotic resistance between commensal and pathogens members of the
Enterobacteriaceae under ileal conditions. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, vol. 95, pp. 428-436, 2003.
[11] E. J. Threlfall, L. R. Ward, J. A. Frost., and G. A. Willshaw. The
emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance in food-borne bacteria.
International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2000 62:1-5.training
programme.
[12] Joint Expert Technical advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance.
The use of antibiotic on food producing animals. In: antibiotic resistant
bacteria in animals and humans. 1999.
[13] R. J. Bywater. (2004). Veterinary use of antimicrobials and emergence
of resistance in zoonotic and sentinel bacteria in the EU. Journal of
Veterinary Medicine. vol. 51, pp. 361-363, 2004.
[14] P. K. Ashok. Bacterial resistance of antimicrobial agents and
microbiological quality among E. coli isolated from dry fishes in
southeast coast of India, 2008.
[15] T. W. Schwatz, Kohenen, and B. Jansen. Detection of antibiotic
resistant bacteria and their resistant genes in wastewater, surface water
and drinking water biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, vol. 43, pp. 325-
335, 2003.
[16] M. D. Onyango, S. Wandili, R. Kakai, and E. N. Waindi. (2009).
Isolation of Salmonella and Shigella from fish harvested from Winam
gulf of Lake Victoria. J. of Inf. in Dev. Count. Vol. 3(2), pp. 99-104,
Sep. 2009.
[17] T. V. R. Pillay. Fish and Public Health and disease. In Aquauclture,
Principles and practices, Pillay, TVR (Ed.). Fishing News Book,
Famham, UK., ISBN: 0-85238-168-9 1990 pp: 174-215.
[18] M. C. Guzman, M. A. Biston, L. M. Tamagninii, and R. D. Gonzalez.
(2004). Recovery of Escherichia coli in fresh water, Jenynsia
mulidenttata and Bryconamericus inhering. Water Research. Vol. 38,
pp. 2368-2374, 2004.
[19] P. N. Acha and B. Szyfres. Zoonoses and communicable diseases
common to man and animals. Vol. 1 Bacterioses and Mycoses 3rd ed.
Scientic and Technical Publication No. 580. Pan American Health
Organization, Regional Office of the WHO, Washington, USA, 384,
2003.
[20] R. Hayashi, K. Horada, S. Mutsuhashi, and M. Inoue. Conjugation of
drug resistance plasmid from V. anguillarum to V. parahaemolyticus.
Microbial Immunology. Vol. 26, pp. 479-487, 1982.
[21] M. Masette. A comparative study of storage tissue of warm and cold
water fish in view of the current market demands. A PhD thesis, United
Nations University, UNU- Fisheries training programme 1999.
[22] L. E. Wyatt., R. Nickelson, and C. Vanderzant. (1979). Occurrence and
control of Salmonella freshwater catfish. Journal of Food Science. Vol.
44 pp. 1069-1073, 1979.
[23] R. O. Abila. Economic analysis of the domestic and export markets of
Kenya-s Nile perch and its products. In: Proceedings of FAO expert
consultation on fish technology in Africa (Kisumu, Kenya). Report no.
574 FAO (Rome). pp. 254-260, 1998.
[24] S. A. Abdullahi, D. S. Abolude and R. A. Ega. (2001). Nutrient quality
of four oven dried freshwater catfish species in Northern Nigeria.
Journal of Tropical Biosciences. Vol. 1(1) pp. 70-76, 2001.
[25] N. K. Gitonga. (2006). Approaches to achieving safety of fish and
fishery products in East Africa. Fisheries department of Kenya Lake
Victoria Environment Management Programme. 2006.
[26] Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. The 2009 Kenya population and
housing census. Volume 1A, August, 2010.
[27] AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International 16th
edition. Methods 950.46, Washington D. C, 1995.
[28] APHA/AWWA/WEF. (1998). Standards Methods for the examination
of water and wastewater. 20th edition. American Public Health
Association/American Water works Association/Water Environment
Federation,Washington, DC, USA,ISBN:0-87553. pp 235-7, 1998.
[29] S. Tharannum, S. N. J. Sarah, M. Chandini, J. Vanitha, T. S. Manjula,
and S. C. Shyam. Molecular confirmation of the presence of coliforms in
drinking water using polymerase chain reaction Kathmandu Uni. J. of
Sc. Eng. and Tech. Vol. 5, pp. 130-136, 2009.
[30] J. Cappuccino and N. Sherman: Microbiology- A laboratory manual (8th
ed). Benjamin-cummings Publisher Co Inc., New York, pp. 137-
149, 2007.
[31] W. F. Harrigan. Laboratory methods of food microbiology, 3rd edition
(pp 165-183). Sandiego: Academic Press Ltd 1998.
[32] F. Kauffmann. The Bacteriology of enterobacteriaceae. Munksgaard,
Copenhagen, Denmark, 1966.
[33] M. Y. Popoff, J. Bockem├╝hl, and F. W. Brenner. Supplement 1998 (no.
42) to the Kauffmann-White scheme. Res. Microbiology. Vol.151, pp.
63-65, 2000.
[34] M. Y. Popoof, and L. Le Minor. Antigenic formula of Salmonella
serovars. 8th edition. World Health Organization Collaborating Center
for Reference and Research on Salmonella. Pasteur institute, Paris,
France. 2003.
[35] National Centre for Infectious Diseases. Laboratory Methods for the
Diagnosis of Epidemic Dysentery and Cholera. Center for Diseases
Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, pp. 49-50, 1999.
[36] A. W. Bauer, and J. C. Kirby. (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by
a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical
Pathology. Vol. 45 pp. 493-496, 1999.
[37] Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for
antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests. Approved standards M2-M9.
Wayne, PA. CLSI. 2007.
[38] J. Baudart, K. Lemarchand, A. Brisabois, and P. Lebaron. (2000).
Diversity of Salmonella strains isolated from the aquatic environment as
determined by serotyping and amplification of the ribosomeal DNA
spacer regions. Applied environmental microbiology. Vol. 66, pp.1544-
1552 2000.
[39] S. G. Robin, A. S. Posa, V. Joeli, R. Alan, C. Clire, P. Craiy and L.
Alena. (2004). Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Ambio 2004. Vol.
33: No. 1-2 pp1-23.
[40] Annual bulletin for Health service Access utilization and coverage,
Nyanza, Dept. of HMIS, MoH, 2007.
[41] M. Vital, H. P. Fuchslin, F. Hammes, and T. Egli. (2007). Growth of
Vibrio cholerae O1 Ogawa eltor in freshwater. Microbiology. Vol. 153
pp. 1993-2001, 2007.
[42] M. S. Islam, B. S. Drasar, and R. B. Sack. The aquatic environment as
reservoir of Vibrio cholerae: A review J. of Diarrhoeal Diseases
Research. Vol. 11, pp. 197-206, 1994.
[43] P. Watnick, and R. Kolter. Steps in development of a Vibrio cholerae
biofilm. Mololecular Microbiology. Vol. 34 pp. 586-595, 1999.
[44] J. Reidl, and K. Klose. Vibrio cholerae and cholera: Out of water and
into the host. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. Vol. 26, pp. 125-139, 2002.
[45] A. Worden, M. Seidel, S. Smriga, A. Wick, and F. Malfatti. Trophic
regulation of Vibrio cholerae in costal marine waters. Environmental
Microbiology. Vol. 8, pp. 21-29, 2006.
[46] S. Sirinavin, and P. Garner. Antibiotics for treating salmonella gut
infections. Cochrane Database Systems Review. CD001167, 2000.
[47] M. D. Onyango, F. Machoni, R. Kakai, and E. N. Waindi. (2008).
Multidrug resistance of Salmonella enteric serovars Typhi and
Typhimurium isolated from clinical samples at two rural hospitals in
western Kenya. J. of Infec. in Dev. Count. Vol. 3(2), pp. 99-104, Jan.
2008.
[48] A. W. Sifuna, E. N. M. Njagi, P. Okemo, A. Munyalo, G. O. Orinda.
(2008). Microbiology quality and safety of Rastrineobola argentea
retailed in Kisumu town markets, Kenya. East Africa Medical Journal.
Vol. 85(10), pp. 509-13, Oct. 2008.
[49] D. A. Sack. Antimicrobial resistance in shigellosis, cholera and
compylobacteriosis. In Background document for the World Health
Organization global strategy for containment of antimicrobial resistance
(2001).
[50] R. Laxminarayan. Antibiotic resistance: An emerging environmental
health threat. Washington, DC: RFF press, 2002.
[51] C. A. Hart, and S. Kariuki. (1998). Antimicrobial resistance in
developing countries BMJ. Vol. 317, pp. 647-650, 1998.
[52] F. Gallarda, J. Ruiz, F. Marco, K. J. Towner, and J. Vila. Increase in
incidence of resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenical and trimethoprim
in clinical isolates of Salmonella serotype typhimurium with
investigation of molecular epidemiology and mechanisms of resistance.
J. Med. Microbiol. Vol. 48 (4):, pp. 367-74, 1999.
[53] Kariuki, M. Gichia, R. Kakai, D. Kusenererwa, W. Macharia, T. Menge,
S. Morpeth, G. Mwabu, L. Ndegwa, B. OlackB, J. Orwa, J. Pandit, G.
Revathi, C. Winters, H. Gelband and R. Laxminarayan. Situation
analysis: Antibiotic Use and Resistance in Kenya. Global Antibiotic
Resistance Partnership - Kenya country report, 2011.
Available at: www.resistancestrategies.org
[54] R. Kakai. Antibiotic resistance in Western Kenya. Global Antibiotic
Resistance Partnership (GARP) inaugural meeting. Fairview Hotel
Nairobi, Kenya. 6th - 7th Aug 2009.
Available at: http://www.docstoc.com
[55] G. Eduardo, S. Carlos, E. Juan, C. Carlose, M. Rose, and R. Rose.
Ciprofloaxacin in the treatment of cholera: A randomized double blind
control clinic trial of a single dose in Peruvian adults.1995.
[56] E. J. Threlfall, J. A. Skinner, and L. R. Ward. (2001). Detection of
decreased in vitro susceptibility to ciprofloxacin in Salmonella enterica
serotypes Typhi and Paratyphi A. J Antimicrob Chemother Vol. 48(5),
pp 740-1, Nov, 2001.
[1] B. A. McCormick, S. P. Colgan, C. Delp-Archer, S. I. Miller, and J. L.
Madara,. (1993) Salmonella typhimurium attachment to human intestinal
epithelial monolayers: Transcelluar signaling to subepithelial
neutrophile. Journal of Cell Biology. 123:895-907, 1993.
[2] K. K. Chao, C. C. Chao, and W. L. Chao. Suitability of the traditional
microbial indicators and their enumerating methods in the assessment of
fecal pollution of subtropical freshwater environments. Journal of
Microbiology Immunological Infection. vol 36, pp 288-293, 2003.
[3] E. E. Geldreich E. E. Bacterial populations and indicator concepts in
feces, sewage, storm water and solid wastes. In G. Berg (ed). Indicators
of viruses in water and food. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.,
Orlando, Fla. 1983, pp 51-97, 183.
[4] S. S. Gaikwad, and Y.Y. Parekh. Salmonellosis in the systemic form due
to multiple drug resistanct Salmonella typhimurium. Journal of
Postgraduate Medicine, vol. 30, pp. 159-162, 1984.
[5] Center for disease Control and Prevention. Division of epidemiology
and surveillance capacity development, Annual report. 2006.
[6] World Health Organization. Annon. "Cholera" (2010).
http://www.who.int/topics/cholere/en/index.html.
[7] R. L, Shapiro, P. Waiyaki, B. L. Nahlen, L. Slutsker, and R. O. Muga.
Transmission of Vibrio cholerae O1 in rural western Kenya associated
with drinking water from Lake Victoria: an environmental reservoir for
cholera. Am. J. of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Vol. 60, 271-276,
1999.
[8] J. C. Acosta, C. M. Galinndo, J. Kimario, K. Senkoro, and G. Urassa.
Cholera outbreak in southern Tanzania: risk factors and patterns of
transmission. Emergence of Infectious Diseases. Vol. 7(3), pp. 583-587,
2001.
[9] E. C. Ibezim. Microbial resistance to antibiotics. African journal of
Biotechnology Vol. 4 (13) pp. 1606-1611, 2005.
[10] D. P. Blake, K. Hillman, D. R. Fenlon, and J. Low. (2003). Transfer of
antibiotic resistance between commensal and pathogens members of the
Enterobacteriaceae under ileal conditions. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, vol. 95, pp. 428-436, 2003.
[11] E. J. Threlfall, L. R. Ward, J. A. Frost., and G. A. Willshaw. The
emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance in food-borne bacteria.
International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2000 62:1-5.training
programme.
[12] Joint Expert Technical advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance.
The use of antibiotic on food producing animals. In: antibiotic resistant
bacteria in animals and humans. 1999.
[13] R. J. Bywater. (2004). Veterinary use of antimicrobials and emergence
of resistance in zoonotic and sentinel bacteria in the EU. Journal of
Veterinary Medicine. vol. 51, pp. 361-363, 2004.
[14] P. K. Ashok. Bacterial resistance of antimicrobial agents and
microbiological quality among E. coli isolated from dry fishes in
southeast coast of India, 2008.
[15] T. W. Schwatz, Kohenen, and B. Jansen. Detection of antibiotic
resistant bacteria and their resistant genes in wastewater, surface water
and drinking water biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, vol. 43, pp. 325-
335, 2003.
[16] M. D. Onyango, S. Wandili, R. Kakai, and E. N. Waindi. (2009).
Isolation of Salmonella and Shigella from fish harvested from Winam
gulf of Lake Victoria. J. of Inf. in Dev. Count. Vol. 3(2), pp. 99-104,
Sep. 2009.
[17] T. V. R. Pillay. Fish and Public Health and disease. In Aquauclture,
Principles and practices, Pillay, TVR (Ed.). Fishing News Book,
Famham, UK., ISBN: 0-85238-168-9 1990 pp: 174-215.
[18] M. C. Guzman, M. A. Biston, L. M. Tamagninii, and R. D. Gonzalez.
(2004). Recovery of Escherichia coli in fresh water, Jenynsia
mulidenttata and Bryconamericus inhering. Water Research. Vol. 38,
pp. 2368-2374, 2004.
[19] P. N. Acha and B. Szyfres. Zoonoses and communicable diseases
common to man and animals. Vol. 1 Bacterioses and Mycoses 3rd ed.
Scientic and Technical Publication No. 580. Pan American Health
Organization, Regional Office of the WHO, Washington, USA, 384,
2003.
[20] R. Hayashi, K. Horada, S. Mutsuhashi, and M. Inoue. Conjugation of
drug resistance plasmid from V. anguillarum to V. parahaemolyticus.
Microbial Immunology. Vol. 26, pp. 479-487, 1982.
[21] M. Masette. A comparative study of storage tissue of warm and cold
water fish in view of the current market demands. A PhD thesis, United
Nations University, UNU- Fisheries training programme 1999.
[22] L. E. Wyatt., R. Nickelson, and C. Vanderzant. (1979). Occurrence and
control of Salmonella freshwater catfish. Journal of Food Science. Vol.
44 pp. 1069-1073, 1979.
[23] R. O. Abila. Economic analysis of the domestic and export markets of
Kenya-s Nile perch and its products. In: Proceedings of FAO expert
consultation on fish technology in Africa (Kisumu, Kenya). Report no.
574 FAO (Rome). pp. 254-260, 1998.
[24] S. A. Abdullahi, D. S. Abolude and R. A. Ega. (2001). Nutrient quality
of four oven dried freshwater catfish species in Northern Nigeria.
Journal of Tropical Biosciences. Vol. 1(1) pp. 70-76, 2001.
[25] N. K. Gitonga. (2006). Approaches to achieving safety of fish and
fishery products in East Africa. Fisheries department of Kenya Lake
Victoria Environment Management Programme. 2006.
[26] Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. The 2009 Kenya population and
housing census. Volume 1A, August, 2010.
[27] AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International 16th
edition. Methods 950.46, Washington D. C, 1995.
[28] APHA/AWWA/WEF. (1998). Standards Methods for the examination
of water and wastewater. 20th edition. American Public Health
Association/American Water works Association/Water Environment
Federation,Washington, DC, USA,ISBN:0-87553. pp 235-7, 1998.
[29] S. Tharannum, S. N. J. Sarah, M. Chandini, J. Vanitha, T. S. Manjula,
and S. C. Shyam. Molecular confirmation of the presence of coliforms in
drinking water using polymerase chain reaction Kathmandu Uni. J. of
Sc. Eng. and Tech. Vol. 5, pp. 130-136, 2009.
[30] J. Cappuccino and N. Sherman: Microbiology- A laboratory manual (8th
ed). Benjamin-cummings Publisher Co Inc., New York, pp. 137-
149, 2007.
[31] W. F. Harrigan. Laboratory methods of food microbiology, 3rd edition
(pp 165-183). Sandiego: Academic Press Ltd 1998.
[32] F. Kauffmann. The Bacteriology of enterobacteriaceae. Munksgaard,
Copenhagen, Denmark, 1966.
[33] M. Y. Popoff, J. Bockem├╝hl, and F. W. Brenner. Supplement 1998 (no.
42) to the Kauffmann-White scheme. Res. Microbiology. Vol.151, pp.
63-65, 2000.
[34] M. Y. Popoof, and L. Le Minor. Antigenic formula of Salmonella
serovars. 8th edition. World Health Organization Collaborating Center
for Reference and Research on Salmonella. Pasteur institute, Paris,
France. 2003.
[35] National Centre for Infectious Diseases. Laboratory Methods for the
Diagnosis of Epidemic Dysentery and Cholera. Center for Diseases
Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, pp. 49-50, 1999.
[36] A. W. Bauer, and J. C. Kirby. (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by
a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical
Pathology. Vol. 45 pp. 493-496, 1999.
[37] Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for
antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests. Approved standards M2-M9.
Wayne, PA. CLSI. 2007.
[38] J. Baudart, K. Lemarchand, A. Brisabois, and P. Lebaron. (2000).
Diversity of Salmonella strains isolated from the aquatic environment as
determined by serotyping and amplification of the ribosomeal DNA
spacer regions. Applied environmental microbiology. Vol. 66, pp.1544-
1552 2000.
[39] S. G. Robin, A. S. Posa, V. Joeli, R. Alan, C. Clire, P. Craiy and L.
Alena. (2004). Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Ambio 2004. Vol.
33: No. 1-2 pp1-23.
[40] Annual bulletin for Health service Access utilization and coverage,
Nyanza, Dept. of HMIS, MoH, 2007.
[41] M. Vital, H. P. Fuchslin, F. Hammes, and T. Egli. (2007). Growth of
Vibrio cholerae O1 Ogawa eltor in freshwater. Microbiology. Vol. 153
pp. 1993-2001, 2007.
[42] M. S. Islam, B. S. Drasar, and R. B. Sack. The aquatic environment as
reservoir of Vibrio cholerae: A review J. of Diarrhoeal Diseases
Research. Vol. 11, pp. 197-206, 1994.
[43] P. Watnick, and R. Kolter. Steps in development of a Vibrio cholerae
biofilm. Mololecular Microbiology. Vol. 34 pp. 586-595, 1999.
[44] J. Reidl, and K. Klose. Vibrio cholerae and cholera: Out of water and
into the host. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. Vol. 26, pp. 125-139, 2002.
[45] A. Worden, M. Seidel, S. Smriga, A. Wick, and F. Malfatti. Trophic
regulation of Vibrio cholerae in costal marine waters. Environmental
Microbiology. Vol. 8, pp. 21-29, 2006.
[46] S. Sirinavin, and P. Garner. Antibiotics for treating salmonella gut
infections. Cochrane Database Systems Review. CD001167, 2000.
[47] M. D. Onyango, F. Machoni, R. Kakai, and E. N. Waindi. (2008).
Multidrug resistance of Salmonella enteric serovars Typhi and
Typhimurium isolated from clinical samples at two rural hospitals in
western Kenya. J. of Infec. in Dev. Count. Vol. 3(2), pp. 99-104, Jan.
2008.
[48] A. W. Sifuna, E. N. M. Njagi, P. Okemo, A. Munyalo, G. O. Orinda.
(2008). Microbiology quality and safety of Rastrineobola argentea
retailed in Kisumu town markets, Kenya. East Africa Medical Journal.
Vol. 85(10), pp. 509-13, Oct. 2008.
[49] D. A. Sack. Antimicrobial resistance in shigellosis, cholera and
compylobacteriosis. In Background document for the World Health
Organization global strategy for containment of antimicrobial resistance
(2001).
[50] R. Laxminarayan. Antibiotic resistance: An emerging environmental
health threat. Washington, DC: RFF press, 2002.
[51] C. A. Hart, and S. Kariuki. (1998). Antimicrobial resistance in
developing countries BMJ. Vol. 317, pp. 647-650, 1998.
[52] F. Gallarda, J. Ruiz, F. Marco, K. J. Towner, and J. Vila. Increase in
incidence of resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenical and trimethoprim
in clinical isolates of Salmonella serotype typhimurium with
investigation of molecular epidemiology and mechanisms of resistance.
J. Med. Microbiol. Vol. 48 (4):, pp. 367-74, 1999.
[53] Kariuki, M. Gichia, R. Kakai, D. Kusenererwa, W. Macharia, T. Menge,
S. Morpeth, G. Mwabu, L. Ndegwa, B. OlackB, J. Orwa, J. Pandit, G.
Revathi, C. Winters, H. Gelband and R. Laxminarayan. Situation
analysis: Antibiotic Use and Resistance in Kenya. Global Antibiotic
Resistance Partnership - Kenya country report, 2011.
Available at: www.resistancestrategies.org
[54] R. Kakai. Antibiotic resistance in Western Kenya. Global Antibiotic
Resistance Partnership (GARP) inaugural meeting. Fairview Hotel
Nairobi, Kenya. 6th - 7th Aug 2009.
Available at: http://www.docstoc.com
[55] G. Eduardo, S. Carlos, E. Juan, C. Carlose, M. Rose, and R. Rose.
Ciprofloaxacin in the treatment of cholera: A randomized double blind
control clinic trial of a single dose in Peruvian adults.1995.
[56] E. J. Threlfall, J. A. Skinner, and L. R. Ward. (2001). Detection of
decreased in vitro susceptibility to ciprofloxacin in Salmonella enterica
serotypes Typhi and Paratyphi A. J Antimicrob Chemother Vol. 48(5),
pp 740-1, Nov, 2001.
@article{"International Journal of Biological, Life and Agricultural Sciences:60166", author = "Jackson H. O. Onyuka and Rose Kakai and David M. Onyango and Peter F. Arama and John Gichuki and Ayub V.O. Ofulla", title = "Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Enteric Bacteria Isolated from Water and Fish in Lake Victoria Basin of Western Kenya", abstract = "A cross sectional study design and standard
microbiological procedures were used to determine the prevalence
and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Escherichia coli,
Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and Vibrio cholerae O1
isolated from water and two fish species Rastrineobola argentea and
Oreochromis niloticus collected from fish landing beaches and
markets in the Lake Victoria Basin of western Kenya. Out of 162
samples analyzed, 133 (82.1%) were contaminated, with S.
typhimurium as the most prevalent (49.6%), followed by E. coli
(46.6%), and lastly V. cholerae (2.8%). All the bacteria isolates were
sensitive to ciprofloxacin. E. coli isolates were resistant to ampicillin,
tetracycline, cotrimoxazole, chloramphenical and gentamicin while
S. typhimurium isolates exhibited resistance to ampicillin,
tetracycline, and cotrimoxazole. The V. cholerae O1 isolates were
resistant to tetracycline and ampicillin. The high prevalence of drug
resistant enteric bacteria in water and fish from the study region
needs public health intervention from the local government.", keywords = "Aquatic environments, Antimicrobial resistance,Enteric bacteria, Lake Victoria Basin", volume = "5", number = "3", pages = "147-8", }
