Environmental Sanitation and Health Risks in Tropical Urban Settings: Case Study of Household Refuse and Diarrhea in Yaoundé-Cameroon
Health problems linked to urban growth are current
major concerns of developing countries. In 2002 and 2005, an
interdisciplinary program “Populations et Espaces ├á Risques
SANitaires" (PERSAN) was set up under the patronage of the
Development and Research Institute. Centered on health in
Cameroon-s urban environment, the program mainly sought to (i)
identify diarrhoea risk factors in Yaoundé, (ii) to measure their
prevalence and apprehend their spatial distribution. The crosssectional
epidemiological study that was carried out revealed a
diarrheic prevalence of 14.4% (437 cases of diarrhoea on the 3,034
children examined). Also, among risk factors studied, household
refuse management methods used by city dwellers were statistically
associated to these diarrhoeas. Moreover, it happened that levels of
diarrhoeal attacks varied consistently from one neighbourhood to
another because of the discrepancy urbanization process of the
Yaoundé metropolis.
[1] United Nations Population Fund (UNPF). 2007. State of world
population 2007- Unleashing the potential of urban growth. [Accessed
27th August at http://www.unfpa.org/publications/].
[2] R. Sietchiping, Geographic information systems and cellular automatabased
model of informal settlement growth, PhD Dissertation, School of
Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, University of
Melbourne, 2003.
[3] S.A. Esrey, "Water, waste, and well-being: a multicountry study--,
American Journal of Epidemiology no143, pp 608-623, 1996.
[4] A. Pruss, D. Kay, J. Fewtrell, J. Bartram, "Estimating the burden of
disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at the global level--,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 110, no 5, pp. 537-542, 2002.
[5] S.A. Bashir, "Home is where the harm is: inadequate housing as a public
health crisis--, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 92, no 5, pp.
733-738, 2002.
[6] M. Black, B. Fawcett, The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global
Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan publications, 2008.
[7] H. Frumkin, ÔÇÿ-Cities, suburbs, and urban sprawl: their impact on
health--, in N. Freudenberg, S. Galea, D. Vlahov (eds), Cities and the
health of the public, Vanderbilt university press, pp. 143-175, 2006.
[8] A. J. Mcmichael, ÔÇÿ-The Urban Environment and Health in a World of
Increasing Globalization: Issues for Developing Countries--, Bulletin of
the World Health Organization, vol. 78, no 9, pp. 1117-1126, 2000.
[9] J. Hardoy, D. Satterthwaite, D. Miltin, Environmental Problems in Third
World Cities. Earthscan Publications, London. 1992.
[10] T. Harpham, M. Tanner, Urban health in developing countries: progress
and prospects, Earthscan Publications, London, 1995.
[11] S. Cairncross, ÔÇÿ-Health Impacts in Developing Countries: New evidence
and new prospects--, Journal of the Institution of Water and
Environmental Management, vol. 4, pp. 6571 - 6577, 1990.
[12] UN-HABITAT, Meeting development goals in small urban centers:
Water and sanitation in the world-s cities, Earthscan Publication,
London 2006.
[13] S.Cairncross, D.O.Neill, A. McCOY, Health, environment and the
burden of disease: a guidance note, Department for International
Development, 2003.
[14] H. Ogawa, ÔÇÿ-Sustainable solid waste Management in Developing
Countries--. Proceedings of the second High-level Meeting on Health
and Environment in ASEAN and East Asian Countries, Bangkok, 12-13
December 2005.
[15] K. Fitzpatrick, M. Lagory, Unhealthy Places: The Ecology of Risk. The
Urban Landscape, New York, 2000.
[16] United Nations Environment Programme. Environmental Risk
Assessment for Sustainable Cities. International Environmental
Technology Centre, Technical Publication Series, No. 3. Osaka/Shiga:
UNEP IETC, 1996.
[17] World Health Organization. 2007. The world health report 2007. A safer
future. [Accessed 25th August at
http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/index.html].
[18] J. K.Tumwine, J. Thompson, M. Katua-Katua, M. Muiwajuzi, I.
Johnson Porras, Diarrhea and effects of different water sources,
sanitation and hygiene behavior in East Africa, Trop Med Int Health,
vol. 7, no 9, pp. 750-756, 2002.
[19] G. Mcgranaham, J. Songsore, ÔÇÿ-Wealth, Health and the Urban
Household--. Environment, vol. 36, no 6, pp 4-11 and 40-45, 1994.
[20] I. Kawachi, L.F. Berkman, ÔÇÿ-Neighbourhoods and Health--, New York:
Oxford University Press Inc, 2003.
[21] R.E. Stren, R. W.Rodney, African Cities in Crisis: Managing Urban
Growth. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1998.
[22] G. Mcgranahan, P. Jacobi, J. Songsore, C. Suriadi, M. Kjellen, The
Citizens at Risk: from Urban Sanitation to Sustainable Cities, London,
Earthscan Publications, 2001.
[23] T.A. Laveist, J. M. Wallace, "Health risk and inequitable distribution of
liquor stores in African American neighbourhood--, Social Science and
Medicine, vol. 51, pp. 613-617, 2000.
[24] J. Gascon, M. Vargas, D. Schellenbergerg and al., "Diarrhoea in
children under 5 years of age from Ifakara,Tanzania: a case-control
study--, J. Clin. Microbiol. Vol. 38, pp 4459-4462, 2000.
[25] K. Molbak, N. Wested, N. Hjlying and al., "The aetiology of early
childhood diarrhoea: a community study from Guinea-Bissau--, J. Inf.
Dis., vol. 169, pp. 581-587, 1994.
[26] National Institute of Statistics. (2007) CAVIE : Enquête sur le cadre de
vie des populations de Yaoundé et Douala. [Accessed 27th August at
http://www.statistics-cameroon.org
[27] H.B.Nguendo Yongsi, H. Ngala Ndi, R. Sietchiping, "Infant diarrheas
within a sub-Saharan urban environment (Yaoundé): an epidemiogeographical
approach--, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and
the Middle East 27, vol. 3, pp 680-690, 2007.
[28] E. NGWE, La gestion des déchets par les ménages: UN problème crucial
d-environnement urbain. L-exemple de Yaoundé (Cameroun). Louvain-
La-Neuve: cours de la Chaire Quetelet / Université Catholique de
Louvain, 1999.
[29] Aymerish, La conqu├¬te du Cameroun (1er Ao├╗t 1914-20 février 1916).
Paris, Payot, 1933.
[30] E. Ngnikam, ├ëvaluation environnementale et économique des systèmes
de gestion des déchets solides municipaux: analyse du cas de Yaoundé
au Cameroun. Lyon, Institut des Sciences appliqués, 2002.
[31] P. Biyong, Assainissement de la ville de Yaoundé: résumé de
l-expérience.(Accessed 10th October 2007 at www.camnet.cm.).
[32] Communauté Urbaine de Yaoundé, Yaoundé, une ville en plein essor.
Yaoundé: Imprimerie nationale, 2002.
[33] R. Schertenleiber, W. Meyer, Municipal Solid Waste Management in
Developing Countries: Problems and Issues; Needs for Further
Research. IRCWD NEWS, No. 26, pp. 2-9, 1992.
[34] G. Compaoré, G. Kaboré, ÔÇÿ-Gestion urbaine et environnement: l-exemple
de Ouagadou (Burkina Faso)--, In BLEY D. et al (éds), Villes du Sud et
environnement. Marseille, Travaux de la Société d-├ëcologie Humaine,
pp 80-99, 1997.
[35] G.E. Blight, C.M. Mbande, "some problems of waste management in
developing countries--, Journal of solid Waste Technology and
Management, vol. 23, no 1, pp. 19-27, 1996.
[36] E. Ngnikam, E. Tanawa, La situation de la collecte et du traitement des
ordures ménagères ├á Yaoundé : bilan et expérience d-une société privée,
Yaoundé: ENSP, Rapport de stage, 1998.
[37] P. Schubeler, Conceptual framework for municipal solid waste
management in low-income countries, United Nations Development
Program, UMP working paper series no 9, 1996.
[38] I. Gage, "The effect of the method of household containment on solid
waste management--. In Thomas-Hope E, Solid waste management:
critical issues for developing countries, Kingston, canoe press, pp 159-
167, 1998.
[39] J. Hadley, "An overview of solid waste management in Barbados--, in E.
Thomas-Hope, Solid waste management: critical issues for developing
countries, Kingston, canoe press, pp 159-167, 1998.
[40] G. Mungai, "Solid waste management and its environmental impact in
Kenya--, in E. Thomas-Hope, Solid waste management: critical issues
for developing countries, Kingston, Canoe press, pp 167-176 1998.
[41] H. Senkoro, Solid waste management in Africa: a WHO/AFRO
perspective. Paper presented in Dar-Es-Salam at the CWG workshop,
Retrieved electronically and accessed 13th march 2008 at
http://www.skat.ch.
[42] O. Zerbock, Urban waste management: waste reduction in developing
nations, School of Forest resource and Environmental Science, Michigan
Technological University, 2003.
[43] N. Bemmo, T. Njine, L. Nola, D. Ngamga, Techniques utilisées au
niveau des quartiers périurbains pour l-évacuation des eaux usées et
excréta humains .propositions de systèmes appropriés, Rapport d-étude,
Yaoundé, ENSP, 1998.
[44] P. Belong, P.C. Ndjoya, Same Ekobo, Incidence des dép├┤ts spontanés
d-ordures ménagères sur la salubrité et la santé publique ├á Yaoundé de
novembre 1993 à janvier 1995, Discussion Paper No. 2, Faculty of
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, 2000.
[45] H.B. Nguendo Yongsi, Urban Space and Diarrheal Diseases in Yaoundé,
Université Paris X-Nanterre, PhD Dissertaion, 2004.
[46] C. Bartonne, Strategies for improving municipal solid waste
management: lessons from world bank lending and CWG activities.
Workshop on Planning for sustainable and integrated Solid Waste
Management, Manilla, 18-22 september, Washington, DC, Urban
Management Division, World Bank, 2000.
[47] L.M. Johanessen, Observations of solid waste landfills in Developing
Countries: Africa, Asia and Latin America. Washington, Urban and local
government working paper series n┬░ 3, the World Bank, 1999.
[48] A.Dauphiné, "Complexités et déterminismes en géographie--, in P-J.
Thumerelle (coord.), Explications en géographie : démarches, stratégies
et modèles, Paris, SEDES, collection DIEM, dossier 29, pp 69-83, 2001.
[49] J.M Ela, La ville en Afrique noire. Paris, Karthala, 1986.
[50] A-S. ZOA, Les ordures ├á Yaoundé, Urbanisation, environnement et
politique au Cameroun, Paris, L-Harmattan, 1996.
[1] United Nations Population Fund (UNPF). 2007. State of world
population 2007- Unleashing the potential of urban growth. [Accessed
27th August at http://www.unfpa.org/publications/].
[2] R. Sietchiping, Geographic information systems and cellular automatabased
model of informal settlement growth, PhD Dissertation, School of
Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, University of
Melbourne, 2003.
[3] S.A. Esrey, "Water, waste, and well-being: a multicountry study--,
American Journal of Epidemiology no143, pp 608-623, 1996.
[4] A. Pruss, D. Kay, J. Fewtrell, J. Bartram, "Estimating the burden of
disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at the global level--,
Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 110, no 5, pp. 537-542, 2002.
[5] S.A. Bashir, "Home is where the harm is: inadequate housing as a public
health crisis--, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 92, no 5, pp.
733-738, 2002.
[6] M. Black, B. Fawcett, The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global
Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan publications, 2008.
[7] H. Frumkin, ÔÇÿ-Cities, suburbs, and urban sprawl: their impact on
health--, in N. Freudenberg, S. Galea, D. Vlahov (eds), Cities and the
health of the public, Vanderbilt university press, pp. 143-175, 2006.
[8] A. J. Mcmichael, ÔÇÿ-The Urban Environment and Health in a World of
Increasing Globalization: Issues for Developing Countries--, Bulletin of
the World Health Organization, vol. 78, no 9, pp. 1117-1126, 2000.
[9] J. Hardoy, D. Satterthwaite, D. Miltin, Environmental Problems in Third
World Cities. Earthscan Publications, London. 1992.
[10] T. Harpham, M. Tanner, Urban health in developing countries: progress
and prospects, Earthscan Publications, London, 1995.
[11] S. Cairncross, ÔÇÿ-Health Impacts in Developing Countries: New evidence
and new prospects--, Journal of the Institution of Water and
Environmental Management, vol. 4, pp. 6571 - 6577, 1990.
[12] UN-HABITAT, Meeting development goals in small urban centers:
Water and sanitation in the world-s cities, Earthscan Publication,
London 2006.
[13] S.Cairncross, D.O.Neill, A. McCOY, Health, environment and the
burden of disease: a guidance note, Department for International
Development, 2003.
[14] H. Ogawa, ÔÇÿ-Sustainable solid waste Management in Developing
Countries--. Proceedings of the second High-level Meeting on Health
and Environment in ASEAN and East Asian Countries, Bangkok, 12-13
December 2005.
[15] K. Fitzpatrick, M. Lagory, Unhealthy Places: The Ecology of Risk. The
Urban Landscape, New York, 2000.
[16] United Nations Environment Programme. Environmental Risk
Assessment for Sustainable Cities. International Environmental
Technology Centre, Technical Publication Series, No. 3. Osaka/Shiga:
UNEP IETC, 1996.
[17] World Health Organization. 2007. The world health report 2007. A safer
future. [Accessed 25th August at
http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/index.html].
[18] J. K.Tumwine, J. Thompson, M. Katua-Katua, M. Muiwajuzi, I.
Johnson Porras, Diarrhea and effects of different water sources,
sanitation and hygiene behavior in East Africa, Trop Med Int Health,
vol. 7, no 9, pp. 750-756, 2002.
[19] G. Mcgranaham, J. Songsore, ÔÇÿ-Wealth, Health and the Urban
Household--. Environment, vol. 36, no 6, pp 4-11 and 40-45, 1994.
[20] I. Kawachi, L.F. Berkman, ÔÇÿ-Neighbourhoods and Health--, New York:
Oxford University Press Inc, 2003.
[21] R.E. Stren, R. W.Rodney, African Cities in Crisis: Managing Urban
Growth. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1998.
[22] G. Mcgranahan, P. Jacobi, J. Songsore, C. Suriadi, M. Kjellen, The
Citizens at Risk: from Urban Sanitation to Sustainable Cities, London,
Earthscan Publications, 2001.
[23] T.A. Laveist, J. M. Wallace, "Health risk and inequitable distribution of
liquor stores in African American neighbourhood--, Social Science and
Medicine, vol. 51, pp. 613-617, 2000.
[24] J. Gascon, M. Vargas, D. Schellenbergerg and al., "Diarrhoea in
children under 5 years of age from Ifakara,Tanzania: a case-control
study--, J. Clin. Microbiol. Vol. 38, pp 4459-4462, 2000.
[25] K. Molbak, N. Wested, N. Hjlying and al., "The aetiology of early
childhood diarrhoea: a community study from Guinea-Bissau--, J. Inf.
Dis., vol. 169, pp. 581-587, 1994.
[26] National Institute of Statistics. (2007) CAVIE : Enquête sur le cadre de
vie des populations de Yaoundé et Douala. [Accessed 27th August at
http://www.statistics-cameroon.org
[27] H.B.Nguendo Yongsi, H. Ngala Ndi, R. Sietchiping, "Infant diarrheas
within a sub-Saharan urban environment (Yaoundé): an epidemiogeographical
approach--, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and
the Middle East 27, vol. 3, pp 680-690, 2007.
[28] E. NGWE, La gestion des déchets par les ménages: UN problème crucial
d-environnement urbain. L-exemple de Yaoundé (Cameroun). Louvain-
La-Neuve: cours de la Chaire Quetelet / Université Catholique de
Louvain, 1999.
[29] Aymerish, La conqu├¬te du Cameroun (1er Ao├╗t 1914-20 février 1916).
Paris, Payot, 1933.
[30] E. Ngnikam, ├ëvaluation environnementale et économique des systèmes
de gestion des déchets solides municipaux: analyse du cas de Yaoundé
au Cameroun. Lyon, Institut des Sciences appliqués, 2002.
[31] P. Biyong, Assainissement de la ville de Yaoundé: résumé de
l-expérience.(Accessed 10th October 2007 at www.camnet.cm.).
[32] Communauté Urbaine de Yaoundé, Yaoundé, une ville en plein essor.
Yaoundé: Imprimerie nationale, 2002.
[33] R. Schertenleiber, W. Meyer, Municipal Solid Waste Management in
Developing Countries: Problems and Issues; Needs for Further
Research. IRCWD NEWS, No. 26, pp. 2-9, 1992.
[34] G. Compaoré, G. Kaboré, ÔÇÿ-Gestion urbaine et environnement: l-exemple
de Ouagadou (Burkina Faso)--, In BLEY D. et al (éds), Villes du Sud et
environnement. Marseille, Travaux de la Société d-├ëcologie Humaine,
pp 80-99, 1997.
[35] G.E. Blight, C.M. Mbande, "some problems of waste management in
developing countries--, Journal of solid Waste Technology and
Management, vol. 23, no 1, pp. 19-27, 1996.
[36] E. Ngnikam, E. Tanawa, La situation de la collecte et du traitement des
ordures ménagères ├á Yaoundé : bilan et expérience d-une société privée,
Yaoundé: ENSP, Rapport de stage, 1998.
[37] P. Schubeler, Conceptual framework for municipal solid waste
management in low-income countries, United Nations Development
Program, UMP working paper series no 9, 1996.
[38] I. Gage, "The effect of the method of household containment on solid
waste management--. In Thomas-Hope E, Solid waste management:
critical issues for developing countries, Kingston, canoe press, pp 159-
167, 1998.
[39] J. Hadley, "An overview of solid waste management in Barbados--, in E.
Thomas-Hope, Solid waste management: critical issues for developing
countries, Kingston, canoe press, pp 159-167, 1998.
[40] G. Mungai, "Solid waste management and its environmental impact in
Kenya--, in E. Thomas-Hope, Solid waste management: critical issues
for developing countries, Kingston, Canoe press, pp 167-176 1998.
[41] H. Senkoro, Solid waste management in Africa: a WHO/AFRO
perspective. Paper presented in Dar-Es-Salam at the CWG workshop,
Retrieved electronically and accessed 13th march 2008 at
http://www.skat.ch.
[42] O. Zerbock, Urban waste management: waste reduction in developing
nations, School of Forest resource and Environmental Science, Michigan
Technological University, 2003.
[43] N. Bemmo, T. Njine, L. Nola, D. Ngamga, Techniques utilisées au
niveau des quartiers périurbains pour l-évacuation des eaux usées et
excréta humains .propositions de systèmes appropriés, Rapport d-étude,
Yaoundé, ENSP, 1998.
[44] P. Belong, P.C. Ndjoya, Same Ekobo, Incidence des dép├┤ts spontanés
d-ordures ménagères sur la salubrité et la santé publique ├á Yaoundé de
novembre 1993 à janvier 1995, Discussion Paper No. 2, Faculty of
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, 2000.
[45] H.B. Nguendo Yongsi, Urban Space and Diarrheal Diseases in Yaoundé,
Université Paris X-Nanterre, PhD Dissertaion, 2004.
[46] C. Bartonne, Strategies for improving municipal solid waste
management: lessons from world bank lending and CWG activities.
Workshop on Planning for sustainable and integrated Solid Waste
Management, Manilla, 18-22 september, Washington, DC, Urban
Management Division, World Bank, 2000.
[47] L.M. Johanessen, Observations of solid waste landfills in Developing
Countries: Africa, Asia and Latin America. Washington, Urban and local
government working paper series n┬░ 3, the World Bank, 1999.
[48] A.Dauphiné, "Complexités et déterminismes en géographie--, in P-J.
Thumerelle (coord.), Explications en géographie : démarches, stratégies
et modèles, Paris, SEDES, collection DIEM, dossier 29, pp 69-83, 2001.
[49] J.M Ela, La ville en Afrique noire. Paris, Karthala, 1986.
[50] A-S. ZOA, Les ordures ├á Yaoundé, Urbanisation, environnement et
politique au Cameroun, Paris, L-Harmattan, 1996.
@article{"International Journal of Biological, Life and Agricultural Sciences:50688", author = "H. B. Nguendo Yongsi and Thora M. Herrmann and A. Lutumba Ntetu and Rémy Sietchiping and Christopher
Bryant", title = "Environmental Sanitation and Health Risks in Tropical Urban Settings: Case Study of Household Refuse and Diarrhea in Yaoundé-Cameroon", abstract = "Health problems linked to urban growth are current
major concerns of developing countries. In 2002 and 2005, an
interdisciplinary program “Populations et Espaces ├á Risques
SANitaires" (PERSAN) was set up under the patronage of the
Development and Research Institute. Centered on health in
Cameroon-s urban environment, the program mainly sought to (i)
identify diarrhoea risk factors in Yaoundé, (ii) to measure their
prevalence and apprehend their spatial distribution. The crosssectional
epidemiological study that was carried out revealed a
diarrheic prevalence of 14.4% (437 cases of diarrhoea on the 3,034
children examined). Also, among risk factors studied, household
refuse management methods used by city dwellers were statistically
associated to these diarrhoeas. Moreover, it happened that levels of
diarrhoeal attacks varied consistently from one neighbourhood to
another because of the discrepancy urbanization process of the
Yaoundé metropolis.", keywords = "Diarrhea, health risk, household refuses handling,sanitation, Yaoundé.", volume = "2", number = "8", pages = "138-9", }
