Abstract: Biodiesel as an alternative diesel fuel is steadily gaining more attention and significance. However, there are some drawbacks while using biodiesel regarding its properties that requires it to be blended with petrol based diesel and/or additives to improve the fuel characteristics. This study analyses thermal cracking as an alternative technology to improve biodiesel characteristics in which, FAME based biodiesel produced by transesterification of castor oil is fed into a continuous thermal cracking reactor at temperatures range of 450-500°C and flowrate range of 20-40 g/hr. Experiments designed by response surface methodology and subsequent statistical studies show that temperature and feed flowrate significantly affect the products yield. Response surfaces were used to study the impact of temperature and flowrate on the product properties. After each experiment, the produced crude bio-oil was distilled and diesel cut was separated. As shorter chain molecules are produced through thermal cracking, the distillation curve of the diesel cut fitted more with petrol based diesel curve in comparison to the biodiesel. Moreover, the produced diesel cut properties adequately pose within property ranges defined by the related standard of petrol based diesel. Cold flow properties, high heating value as the main drawbacks of the biodiesel are improved by this technology. Thermal cracking decreases kinematic viscosity, Flash point and cetane number.
Abstract: Poly bag and mulch films for agricultural field caused
pose environmental problem due to the non-degradable plastics
wastes upon disposal. Thus, a degradable poly bag was designed with
hybrid sago starch (SS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Two Different
blended compositions of SS and PVA hybrid have been compounded.
Then, the hybrids blended are mixed with linear line density
polyethylene (LLDPE) resin to fabricate poly bag film through
conventional film blowing process. Samples of LLDPE, SS and PVA
hybrid film were exposed to UV light and soil burial. The weight
losses were determined during degradation process. Hybrid film by
degradation of starch was found to hydrolyze and hydroxyl groups
decrease on esterification upon exposure to soil burial and uv
radiation. It was found out that, the hybrid film for 60% of SS
composition showed greatest degradation in soil and UV radiation.
Abstract: Considering palm oil as non-drying oil owing to its
low iodine value, an attempt was taken to increase the unsaturation in
the fatty acid chains of palm oil for the preparation of alkyds. To
increase the unsaturation in the palm oil, sulphuric acid (SA) and
para-toluene sulphonic acid (PTSA) was used prior to alcoholysis for
the dehydration process. The iodine number of the oil samples was
checked for the unsaturation measurement by Wijs method. Alkyd
resin was prepared using the dehydrated palm oil by following
alcoholysis and esterification reaction. To improve the film properties
0.5wt.% multi-wall carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs) were used to
manufacture polymeric film. The properties of the resins were
characterized by various physico-chemical properties such as density,
viscosity, iodine value, saponification value, etc. Structural
elucidation was confirmed by Fourier transform of infrared
spectroscopy and proton nuclear magnetic resonance; surfaces of the
films were examined by field-emission scanning electron microscope.
In addition, pencil hardness and chemical resistivity was also
measured by using standard methods. The effect of enhancement of
the unsaturation in the fatty acid chain found significant and
motivational. The resin prepared with dehydrated palm oil showed
improved properties regarding hardness and chemical resistivity
testing. The incorporation of MWCNTs enhanced the thermal
stability and hardness of the films as well.
Abstract: Strong anion exchange resins with QN+OH-, have the
potential to be developed and employed as heterogeneous catalyst for
transesterification, as they are chemically stable to leaching of the
functional group. Nine different SIERs (SIER1-9) with QN+OH-were
prepared by suspension polymerization of vinylbenzyl chloridedivinylbenzene
(VBC-DVB) copolymers in the presence of n-heptane
(pore-forming agent). The amine group was successfully grafted into
the polymeric resin beads through functionalization with
trimethylamine. These SIERs are then used as a catalyst for the
transesterification of triacetin with methanol. A set of differential
equations that represents the Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-
Watson (LHHW) and Eley-Rideal (ER) models for the
transesterification reaction were developed. These kinetic models of
LHHW and ER were fitted to the experimental data. Overall, the
synthesized ion exchange resin-catalyzed reaction were welldescribed
by the Eley-Rideal model compared to LHHW models,
with sum of square error (SSE) of 0.742 and 0.996, respectively.
Abstract: Esterification of p-bromo-m-cresol led to formation of
2-(4-bromo-3-methylphenoxy)acetate (1). 2-(4-Bromo-3-methyl
phenoxy)acetohydrazide (2) is derived from Compound (1) by
hydrazination. Compound (2) was reacted with different aromatic
aldehydes to yield N-(substituted benzylidiene)-2-(4-bromo-3-methyl
phenoxy)acetamide(3a-c). Cyclization of compound (3a-c) with
thioglycolic acid yielded 2-(4-bromo-3-methylphenoxy)-N-(4-oxo-2-
arylthiazolidin-3-yl) acetamide (4a-c). The newly synthesized
compounds were characterized on the basis of spectral studies and
evaluated for antibacterial and antifungal activities.
Abstract: The discarded clam shell waste, fossil and edible oil
as biolubricant feedstocks create environmental impacts and food
chain dilemma, thus this work aims to circumvent these issues by
using activated saltwater clam shell waste (SCSW) as solid catalyst
for conversion of Jatropha curcas oil as non-edible sources to ester
biolubricant. The characterization of solid catalyst was done by
Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (DTATGA),
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD),
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscopy (FESEM) and Fourier Transformed Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The calcined catalyst was used in the
transesterification of Jatropha oil to methyl ester as the first step, and
the second stage was involved the reaction of Jatropha methyl ester
(JME) with trimethylolpropane (TMP) based on the various process
parameters. The formated biolubricant was analyzed using the
capillary column (DB-5HT) equipped Gas Chromatography (GC).
The conversion results of Jatropha oil to ester biolubricant can be
found nearly 96.66%, and the maximum distribution composition
mainly contains 72.3% of triester (TE).
Abstract: Ferulic acid has widespread industrial potential by virtue of its antioxidant properties. However, it is partially soluble in aqueous media, limiting their usefulness in oil-based processes in food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and material industry. Therefore, modification of ferulic acid should be made by producing of more lipophilic derivatives. In this study, a preliminary investigation of lipase-catalyzed trans-esterification reaction of ethyl ferulate and olive oil was investigated. The reaction was catalyzed by immobilized lipase from Candida antarctica (Novozym 435), to produce ferulate ester, a sunscreen agent. A statistical approach of Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the interactive effects of reaction temperature (40-80°C), reaction time (4-12 hours), and amount of enzyme (0.1-0.5 g). The optimum conditions derived via RSM were reaction temperature 60°C, reaction time 2.34 hours, and amount of enzyme 0.3 g. The actual experimental yield was 59.6% ferulate ester under optimum condition, which compared well to the maximum predicted value of 58.0%.
Abstract: Various biomass based resources, which can be used
as an extender, or a complete substitute of diesel fuel may have very
significant role in the development of agriculture, industrial and
transport sectors in the energy crisis. Use of Karanja oil methyl ester
biodiesel in a CI DI engine was found highly compatible with engine
performance along with lower exhaust emission as compared to
diesel fuel but with slightly higher NOx emission and low wear
characteristics. The combustion related properties of vegetable oils
are somewhat similar to diesel oil. Neat vegetable oils or their blends
with diesel, however, pose various long-term problems in
compression ignition engines. These undesirable features of
vegetable oils are because of their inherent properties like high
viscosity, low volatility, and polyunsaturated character. Pongamia
methyl ester (PME) was prepared by transesterification process using
methanol for long term engine operations. The physical and
combustion-related properties of the fuels thus developed were found
to be closer to that of the diesel. A neat biodiesel (PME) was selected
as a fuel for the tribological study of biofuels.
Two similar new engines were completely disassembled and
subjected to dimensioning of various vital moving parts and then
subjected to long-term endurance tests on neat biodiesel and diesel
respectively. After completion of the test, both the engines were
again disassembled for physical inspection and wear measurement of
various vital parts. The lubricating oil samples drawn from both
engines were subjected to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for
measurement of various wear metal traces present. The additional
lubricating property of biodiesel fuel due to higher viscosity as
compared to diesel fuel resulted in lower wear of moving parts and
thus improved the engine durability with a bio-diesel fuel. Results
reported from AAS tests confirmed substantially lower wear and thus
improved life for biodiesel operated engines.
Abstract: Depletion and hazardous gas emissions associated
with fossil fuels have caused scientists and global attention to focus
on the use of “alternative, eco-friendly substitutes for use in
Compression Ignition Engines. In this work, biodiesel was produced
by trans-esterification of soybean obtained from a Nigerian market
using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) as a catalyst.” After the
production, the physical properties (specific gravity to kinematic
viscosity and net calorific value) of the Soybean-biodiesel produced
and petrol diesel obtained from a filling station in Nigeria were
determined, and these properties conform to conventional standards
(ASTM). A cummins-6V-92TA DDEC diesel (Compression ignition,
CI) engine was run on various biodiesel-petrol diesel blends (0/100,
10/90, 20/80, 30/70 and 40/60), the B20 (blend 20/80) was found to
be the most satisfactory.
Abstract: In this study, fish bone waste was used as a new
catalyst for biodiesel production. Instead of discarding the fish bone
waste, it will be utilized as a source for catalyst that can provide
significant benefit to the environment. Also, it can be substitute as a
calcium oxide source instead of using eggshell, crab shell and snail
shell. The XRD and SEM analysis proved that calcined fish bone
contains calcium oxide, calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite. The
catalyst was characterized using Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD).
Abstract: Jojoba oil-wax is extracted from the seeds of the jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis Link Schneider), a perennial shrub that grows in semi desert areas in Egypt and in some parts of the world. The main uses of jojoba oil-wax are in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry, but new uses could arise related to the search of new energetic crops. This paper summarizes a process to convert the jojoba oil-wax to biodiesel by transesterification with ethanol and a series of aliphatic alcohols using a more economic and energy saving method in a domestic microwave. The effect of time and power of the microwave on the extent of the transesterification using ethanol and other aliphatic alcohols has been studied. The separation of the alkyl esters from the fatty alcohols rich fraction has been done in a single crystallization step at low temperature (−18°C) from low boiling point petroleum ether. Gas chromatography has been used to follow up the transesterification process. All products have been characterized by spectral analysis.
Abstract: As the limited availability of petroleum-based fuel has been a major concern, biodiesel is one of the most attractive alternative fuels because it is renewable and it also has advantages over the conventional petroleum-base diesel. At Present, productions of biodiesel generally perform by transesterification of vegetable oils with low molecular weight alcohol, mainly methanol, using chemical catalysts. Methanol is petrochemical product that makes biodiesel producing from methanol to be not pure renewable energy source. Therefore, ethanol as a product produced by fermentation processes. It appears as a potential feed stock that makes biodiesel to be pure renewable alternative fuel. The research is conducted based on two biodiesel production processes by reacting soybean oils with methanol and ethanol. Life cycle assessment was carried out in order to evaluate the environmental impacts and to identify the process alternative. Nine mid-point impact categories are investigated. The results indicate that better performance on abiotic depletion potential (ADP) and acidification potential (AP) are observed in biodiesel production from methanol when compared with biodiesel production from ethanol due to less energy consumption during the production processes. Except for ADP and AP, using methanol as feed stock does not show any advantages over biodiesel from ethanol. The single score method is also included in this study in order to identify the best option between two processes of biodiesel production. The global normalization and weighting factor based on ecotaxes are used and it shows that producing biodiesel form ethanol has less environmental load compare to biodiesel from methanol.
Abstract: The performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a single cylinder four stroke variable compression ratio multi fuel engine when fueled with different blends of rice bran oil methyl ester and ethanol are investigated and compared with the results of standard diesel. Bio diesel produced from Rice bran oil by transesterification process has been used in this study. Experiment has been conducted at a fixed engine speed of 1500 rpm, 50% load and at compression ratios of 16.5:1, 17:1, 17.5:1 and 18:1. The impact of compression ratio on fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency and exhaust gas emissions has been investigated and presented. Optimum compression ratio which gives best performance has been identified. The results indicate longer ignition delay, maximum rate of pressure rise, lower heat release rate and higher mass fraction burnt at higher compression ratio for waste cooking oil methyl ester when compared to that of diesel. The brake thermal efficiency at 50% load for Rice bran oil methyl ester blends and diesel has been calculated and the blend B40 is found to give maximum thermal efficiency. The blends when used as fuel results in reduction of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and increase in nitrogen oxides emissions.
Abstract: Transesterification reactions free of catalyst between
roasted chicken fat with methanol were carried out in a batch reactor
in order to produce biodiesel to temperatures from 120°C to 140°C.
Parameters related to the transesterification reactions, including
temperature, time and the molar ratio of chicken fat to methanol also
investigated. The maximum yield of the reaction was of 98% under
conditions of 140°C, 4 h of reaction time and a molar ratio of chicken
fat to methanol of 1:31. The biodiesel thus obtained exhibited a
viscosity of 6.3 mm2/s and a density of 895.9 kg/m3. The results
showed this process can be right choice to produce biodiesel since
this process does not use any catalyst. Therefore, the steps of
neutralization and washing are avoided, indispensables in the case of
the alkaline catalysis.
Abstract: Different vegetable oil based biodiesel (FAMES) were prepared by alkaline transesterification using refined oils as well as waste frying oil (WFO). Methanol and sodium hydroxide are used as catalyst under similar reaction conditions. To ensure the quality of biodiesel produced, a series of different ASTM Standard tests were carried out. In this context, various testwere done including viscosity, carbon residue, specific gravity, corrosion test, flash point, cloud point and pour point. Results revealed that characteristics of biodiesel depend on the feedstock and it is far better than petroleum diesel.
Abstract: The studying of enzymatic esterification of carboxylic
acids and higher alcohols was performed by esterase Saccharomyces
cerevisiae in water-organic medium. Investigation of the enzyme
specificity to acetic substrates showed the best result with acetic acid
in esterification reactions with ethanol whereas within other
carboxylic acids the esterification decreased with acids: hexanoic >
pentanoic > butyric > decanoic. In relation to higher alcohols C3-C5,
esterification increased with alcohols propanol < butanol < amylol.
Also it was determined that esterase was more specific to alcohols
with branched chain such as isobutyl alcohol and isoamyl alcohol.
Data obtained may have important practical implications, for
example, for application of yeast esterase in producing various
volatile esters as well as in enzymatic transformation of volatile acids
and toxic fusel alcohols into volatile esters by providing the
production of the high quality alcoholic beverages with redused
content of higher alcohols as well as with improved degustational and
hygienic properties.
Abstract: The production of biodiesel from crude palm oil with
a homogeneous base catalyst is unlikely owing to considerable
formation of soap. Free fatty acids (FFA) in crude palm oil need to
be reduced, e.g. by esterification. This study investigated the activity
of sulfated zirconia calcined at various temperatures for esterification
of FFA in crude palm oil to biodiesel. It was found that under a
proper reaction condition, sulfated zirconia well catalyzes
esterification. FFA content can be reduced to an acceptable value for
typical biodiesel production with a homogeneous base catalyst.
Crystallinity and sulfate attachment of sulfated zirconia depend on
calcination temperature during the catalyst preparation. Too low
temperature of calcination gives amorphous sulfated zirconia which
has low activity for esterification of FFA. In contrast, very high
temperature of calcination removes sulfate group, consequently,
conversion of FFA is reduced. The appropriate temperature range of
calcination is 550-650 oC.
Abstract: Commercially available lipases (Candida antarctica lipase B, Novozyme 435, Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase, and Lipozyme TL IM), as well as sol-gel immobilized lipases, have been screened for their ability to acylate regioselectively xylitol, sorbitol, and mannitol with a phenolic ester in a binary mixture of t-butanol and dimethylsulfoxide. HPLC and MALDI-TOF MS analysis revealed the exclusive formation of monoesters for all studied sugar alcohols. The lipases immobilized by the sol-gel entrapment method proved to be efficient catalysts, leading to high conversions (up to 60%) in the investigated acylation reactions. From a sequence of silane precursors with different nonhydrolyzable groups in their structure, the presence of octyl and i-butyl group was most beneficial for the catalytic activity of sol-gel entrapped lipases in the studied process.
Abstract: A process flowsheet was developed in ChemCad 6.4
to study the effect of feed moisture contents on the pre-esterification
of waste oils. Waste oils were modelled as a mixture of triolein
(90%), oleic acid (5%) and water (5%). The process mainly consisted
of feed drying, pre-esterification reaction and methanol recovery. The
results showed that the process energy requirements would be
minimized when higher degrees of feed drying and higher preesterification
reaction temperatures are used.
Abstract: The aim of this study is to develop mathematical
relationships for the performance parameter brake thermal efficiency
(BTE) and emission parameter nitrogen oxides (NOx) for the various
esters of vegetable oils used as CI engine fuel. The BTE is an
important performance parameter defining the ability of engine to
utilize the energy supplied and power developed similarly it is
indication of efficiency of fuels used. The esters of cottonseed oil,
soybean oil, jatropha oil and hingan oil are prepared using
transesterification process and characterized for their physical and
main fuel properties including viscosity, density, flash point and
higher heating value using standard test methods. These esters are
tried as CI engine fuel to analyze the performance and emission
parameters in comparison to diesel. The results of the study indicate
that esters as a fuel does not differ greatly with that of diesel in
properties. The CI engine performance with esters as fuel is in line
with the diesel where as the emission parameters are reduced with the
use of esters.
The correlation developed between BTE and brake power(BP),
gross calorific value(CV), air-fuel ratio(A/F), heat carried away by
cooling water(HCW). Another equation is developed between the
NOx emission and CO, HC, smoke density (SD), exhaust gas
temperature (EGT). The equations are verified by comparing the
observed and calculated values which gives the coefficient of
correlation of 0.99 and 0.96 for the BTE and NOx equations
respectively.