Abstract: In Morocco’s Agadir region, the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation of green spaces has faced the problem of scaling of the pipes of these waters. This research paper aims at studying the phenomenon of scaling caused by the treated wastewater from the Mzar sewage treatment plant. These waters are used in the irrigation of golf turf for the Ocean Golf Resort. Ocean Golf, located about 10 km from the center of the city of Agadir, is one of the most important recreation centers in Morocco. The course is a Belt Collins design with 27 holes, and is quite open with deep challenging bunkers. The formation of solid deposits in the irrigation systems has led to a decrease in their lifetime and, consequently, a loss of load and performance. Thus, the sprinklers used in golf turf irrigation are plugged in the first weeks of operation. To study this phenomenon, the wastewater used for the irrigation of the golf turf was taken and analyzed at various points, and also samples of scale formed in the circuits of the passage of these waters were characterized. This characterization of the scale was performed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results of the physicochemical analysis of the waters show that they are full of bicarbonates (653 mg/L), chloride (478 mg/L), nitrate (412 mg/L), sodium (425 mg/L) and calcium (199mg/L). Their pH is slightly alkaline. The analysis of the scale reveals that it is rich in calcium and phosphorus. It is formed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), silica (SiO₂), calcium silicate (Ca₂SiO₄), hydroxylapatite (Ca₁₀P₆O₂₆), calcium carbonate and phosphate (Ca₁₀(PO₄) 6CO₃) and silicate calcium and magnesium (Ca₅MgSi₃O₁₂).
Abstract: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is heading towards a severe and rapidly expanding water crisis, which can have negative impacts on the country’s environment and economy. Of the total water consumption in KSA, the agricultural sector accounts for nearly 87% of the total water use and, therefore, any attempt that overlooks this sector will not help in improving the sustainability of the country’s water resources. KSA Vision 2030 gives priority of water use in the agriculture sector for the regions that have natural renewable water resources. It means that there is little concern for making reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation purposes in any region in general and in water-scarce regions in particular. The use of treated wastewater is very limited in Saudi Arabia, but it has very considerable potential for future expansion due its numerous beneficial uses. This study reviews the current situation of water resources in Saudi Arabia, providing more highlights on agriculture and wastewater reuse. The reviewed study is proposing some corrective measures for development and better management of water resources in the Kingdom. Suggestions also include consideration of treated water as an alternative source for irrigation in some regions of the country. The study concluded that a sustainable solution for the water crisis in KSA requires implementation of multiple measures in an integrated manner. The integrated solution plan should focus on two main directions: first, improving the current management practices of the existing water resources; second, developing new water supplies from both conventional and non-conventional sources.
Abstract: Developing countries are nowadays confronted with great challenges related to domestic sanitation services in view of the imminent water scarcity. Contemporary sanitation technologies established in these countries are likely to pose health risks unless waste management standards are followed properly. This paper provides a solution to sustainable sanitation with the development of an innovative toilet system, called Nano Membrane Toilet (NMT), which has been developed by Cranfield University and sponsored by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The particular technology converts human faeces into energy through gasification and provides treated wastewater from urine through membrane filtration. In order to evaluate the environmental profile of the NMT system, a deterministic life cycle assessment (LCA) has been conducted in SimaPro software employing the Ecoinvent v3.3 database. The particular study has determined the most contributory factors to the environmental footprint of the NMT system. However, as sensitivity analysis has identified certain critical operating parameters for the robustness of the LCA results, adopting a stochastic approach to the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) will comprehensively capture the input data uncertainty and enhance the credibility of the LCA outcome. For that purpose, Monte Carlo simulations, in combination with an artificial neural network (ANN) model, have been conducted for the input parameters of raw material, produced electricity, NOX emissions, amount of ash and transportation of fertilizer. The given analysis has provided the distribution and the confidence intervals of the selected impact categories and, in turn, more credible conclusions are drawn on the respective LCIA (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) profile of NMT system. Last but not least, the specific study will also yield essential insights into the methodological framework that can be adopted in the environmental impact assessment of other complex engineering systems subject to a high level of input data uncertainty.
Abstract: Worldwide, about two-thirds of industrial and domestic wastewater effluent is discharged without treatment, which can cause contamination and eutrophication of the water. In particular, for Mediterranean countries, irrigation with treated wastewater would mitigate the water stress and support the agricultural sector. Changing global weather patterns will make the situation worse, due to increased susceptibility to drought, which can cause major environmental, social, and economic problems. The study was carried out in open field in an intensive agricultural area of the Apulian region in Southern Italy where freshwater resources are often scarce. As well as providing a water resource, irrigation with treated wastewater represents a significant source of nutrients for soil–plant systems. However, the use of wastewater might have further effects on soil. This study thus investigated the long-term impact of irrigation with reclaimed agro-industrial wastewater on the chemical characteristics of the soil. Two crops (processing tomato and broccoli) were cultivated in succession in Stornarella (Foggia) over four years from 2012 to 2016 using two types of irrigation water: groundwater and tertiary treated agro-industrial wastewater that had undergone an activated sludge process, sedimentation filtration, and UV radiation. Chemical analyses were performed on the irrigation waters and soil samples. The treated wastewater was characterised by high levels of several chemical parameters including TSS, EC, COD, BOD5, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4-N, PO4-P, K+, SAR and CaCO3, as compared with the groundwater. However, despite these higher levels, the mean content of several chemical parameters in the soil did not show relevant differences between the irrigation treatments, in terms of the chemical features of the soil.
Abstract: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is significantly dependent on desalinated water and groundwater resource, which is expensive and highly energy intensive. Despite the scarce water resource, stagnates only 54% of the recycled water was reused in 2012, and due to the lack of infrastructure to reuse the recycled water, the portion is expected to decrease with growing water usage. In this study, an “Oasis” complex comprised of Sustainable Farming Compartments (SFC) was proposed for reusing treated wastewater. The wastewater is used to decrease the ambient temperature of the SFC via an evaporative cooler. The SFC prototype was designed, built, and tested in an environmentally controlled laboratory and field site to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the SFC subjected to various climatic conditions in Abu Dhabi. Based on the experimental results, the temperature drop achieved in the SFC in the laboratory and field site were5 ̊C from 22 ̊C and 7- 15 ̊C (from 33-45 ̊C to average 28 ̊C at relative humidity < 50%), respectively. An energy simulation using TRNSYS was performed to extend and validate the results obtained from the experiment. The results from the energy simulation and experiments show statistically close agreement. The total power consumption of the SFC system was approximately three and a half times lower than that of an electrical air conditioner. Therefore, by using treated wastewater, the SFC has a promising prospect to solve Abu Dhabi’s ecological concern related to desertification and wind erosion.
Abstract: The study assessed the effectiveness of Pawpaw
(Carica papaya) wood in reducing the concentrations of heavy
metals in wastewater acting as a bio-sorbent. The following heavy
metals were considered; Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Copper, Iron,
Selenium, Nickel and Manganese. The physiochemical properties of
Carica papaya stem were studied. The experimental sample was
sourced from the trunk of a felled matured pawpaw tree. Wastewater
for experimental use was prepared by dissolving soil samples
collected from a dump site at Owerri, Imo state of Nigeria in water.
The concentration of each metal remaining in solution as residual
metal after bio-sorption was determined using Atomic absorption
Spectrometer. The effects of pH and initial heavy metal concentration
were studied in a batch reactor. The results of Spectrometer test
showed that there were different functional groups detected in the
Carica papaya stem biomass. There was increase in metal removal as
the pH increased for all the metals considered except for Nickel and
Manganese. Optimum bio-sorption occurred at pH 5.9 with 5g/100ml
solution of bio-sorbent. The results of the study showed that the
treated wastewater is fit for irrigation purpose based on Canada
wastewater quality guideline for the protection of Agricultural
standard. This approach thus provides a cost effective and
environmentally friendly option for treating wastewater.
Abstract: A pilot field study was conducted at the Jagjeetpur
Municipal Sewage treatment plant situated in the Haridwar town in
Uttarakhand state, India. The objectives of the present study were to
study the effect of treated wastewater on the production of various
paddy varieties (Sharbati, PR-114, PB-1, Menaka, PB1121 and PB
1509) and the emission of GHG gases (CO2, CH4 and N2O) as
compared to the same varieties grown in the control plots irrigated
with fresh water. Of late, the concept of water footprint assessment
has emerged, which explains enumeration of various types of water
footprints of an agricultural entity from its production to processing
stages. Paddy, the most water demanding staple crop of Uttarakhand
state, displayed a high green water footprint value of 2474.12 m3/
Ton. Most of the wastewater irrigated varieties displayed up to 6%
increase in production, except Menaka and PB-1121, which showed a
reduction in production (6% and 3% respectively), due to pest and
insect infestation. The treated wastewater was observed to be rich in
Nitrogen (55.94 mg/ml Nitrate), Phosphorus (54.24 mg/ml) and
Potassium (9.78 mg/ml), thus rejuvenating the soil quality and not
requiring any external nutritional supplements. A Percentage increase
of GHG gases of irrigation with treated municipal wastewater as
compared to control plots was observed as 0.4% - 8.6% (CH4), 1.1%
- 9.2% (CO2), and 0.07% - 5.8% (N2O). The variety, Sharbati,
displayed maximum production (5.5 ton/ha) and emerged as the most
resistant variety against pests and insects. The emission values of
CH4, CO2 and N2O were 729.31 mg/m2/d, 322.10 mg/m2/d and
400.21 mg/m2/d in water stagnant condition.
This study highlighted a successful possibility of reuse of
wastewater for non-potable purposes offering the potential for
exploiting this resource that can replace or reduce the existing use of
fresh water sources in agriculture sector.
Abstract: Portugal is an important wine and olive oil producer, activities which generate a high quantity of residues commonly called grape stalks and olive cake, respectively. In this work grape stalks and olive cake were used as lignocellulosic adsorbents for wastewater containing lead treatment. To attain a better knowledge of the factors that could influence the quality of the treated wastewater, a chemical characterization of the materials used in the treatment was done. To access the ecotoxicological safety of the treated wastewater, several tests were performed.
The results of the toxicity test show that the samples leachate has a mild effect on the living models tested. The tests performed in lemna and bacteria were the most sensible to toxicity effects of the samples. The results obtained in this work evidenced the importance of use of simple and fast toxicity tests to predict impacts in the environment.
Abstract: Anaerobic modeling is a useful tool to describe and
simulate the condition and behaviour of anaerobic treatment units for
better effluent quality and biogas generation. The present
investigation deals with the anaerobic treatment of brewery
wastewater with varying organic loads. The chemical oxygen demand
(COD) and total suspended solids (TSS) of the influent and effluent
of the bioreactor were determined at various retention times to
generate data for kinetic coefficients. The bio-kinetic coefficients in
the modified Stover–Kincannon kinetic and methane generation
models were determined to study the performance of anaerobic
digestion process. At steady-state, the determination of the kinetic
coefficient (K), the endogenous decay coefficient (Kd), the maximum
growth rate of microorganisms (μmax), the growth yield coefficient
(Y), ultimate methane yield (Bo), maximum utilization rate constant
Umax and the saturation constant (KB) in the model were calculated to
be 0.046 g/g COD, 0.083 (d¯¹), 0.117 (d-¹), 0.357 g/g, 0.516 (L
CH4/gCODadded), 18.51 (g/L/day) and 13.64 (g/L/day) respectively.
The outcome of this study will help in simulation of anaerobic model
to predict usable methane and good effluent quality during the
treatment of industrial wastewater. Thus, this will protect the
environment, conserve natural resources, saves time and reduce cost
incur by the industries for the discharge of untreated or partially
treated wastewater. It will also contribute to a sustainable long-term
clean development mechanism for the optimization of the methane
produced from anaerobic degradation of waste in a close system.
Abstract: Results of a field study carried out at Trinitapoli (Puglia region, southern Italy) on the irrigation of an artichoke crop with three types of water (secondary-treated wastewater, SW; tertiary-treated wastewater, TW; and freshwater, FW) are reported. Physical, chemical and microbiological analyses were performed on the irrigation water, and on soil and yield samples.
The levels of most of the chemical parameters, such as electrical conductivity, total suspended solids, Na+, Ca2+, Mg+2, K+, sodium adsorption ratio, chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand over 5 days, NO3 –N, total N, CO32, HCO3, phenols and chlorides of the applied irrigation water were significantly higher in SW compared to GW and TW. No differences were found for Mg2+, PO4-P, K+ only between SW and TW. Although the chemical parameters of the three irrigation water sources were different, few effects on the soil were observed. Even though monitoring of Escherichia coli showed high SW levels, which were above the limits allowed under Italian law (DM 152/2006), contamination of the soil and the marketable yield were never observed. Moreover, no Salmonella spp. were detected in these irrigation waters; consequently, they were absent in the plants. Finally, the data on the quantitative-qualitative parameters of the artichoke yield with the various treatments show no significant differences between the three irrigation water sources. Therefore, if adequately treated, municipal wastewater can be used for irrigation and represents a sound alternative to conventional water resources.
Abstract: Australia is a country of some 7,700 million square kilometers with a population of about 22.6 million. At present water security is a major challenge for Australia. In some areas the use of water resources is approaching and in some parts it is exceeding the limits of sustainability. A focal point of proposed national water conservation programs is the recycling of both urban stormwater and treated wastewater. But till now it is not widely practiced in Australia, and particularly stormwater is neglected. In Australia, only 4% of stormwater and rainwater is recycled, whereas less than 1% of reclaimed wastewater is reused within urban areas. Therefore, accurately monitoring, assessing and predicting the availability, quality and use of this precious resource are required for better management. As stormwater is usually of better quality than untreated sewage or industrial discharge, it has better public acceptance for recycling and reuse, particularly for non-potable use such as irrigation, watering lawns, gardens, etc. Existing stormwater recycling practice is far behind of research and no robust technologies developed for this purpose. Therefore, there is a clear need for using modern technologies for assessing feasibility of stormwater harvesting and reuse. Numerical modeling has, in recent times, become a popular tool for doing this job. It includes complex hydrological and hydraulic processes of the study area. The hydrologic model computes stormwater quantity to design the system components, and the hydraulic model helps to route the flow through stormwater infrastructures. Nowadays water quality module is incorporated with these models. Integration of Geographic Information System (GIS) with these models provides extra advantage of managing spatial information. However for the overall management of a stormwater harvesting project, Decision Support System (DSS) plays an important role incorporating database with model and GIS for the proper management of temporal information. Additionally DSS includes evaluation tools and Graphical user interface. This research aims to critically review and discuss all the aspects of stormwater harvesting and reuse such as available guidelines of stormwater harvesting and reuse, public acceptance of water reuse, the scopes and recommendation for future studies. In addition to these, this paper identifies, understand and address the importance of modern technologies capable of proper management of stormwater harvesting and reuse.
Abstract: This study aims at implementing integrated water resources management principles to the Lafarge Cement Jordan at Al-Fuhais plant. This was accomplished by conducting water audits at all water consuming units in the plant. Based on the findings of the water audit, an action plan to improve water use efficiency in the plant was proposed. The main elements of which are installing water saving devices, re-use of the treated wastewater, water harvesting, raising the awareness of the employees, and linking the plant to the water demand management unit at the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.
The analysis showed that by implementing the proposed action plan, it is expected that the industrial water demand can be satisfied from non-conventional resources including treated wastewater and harvested water. As a consequence, fresh water can be used to increase the supply to Al-Fuhais city which is expected to reflect positively on the relationship between the factory and the city.
Abstract: The response of King Abdulla Canal (KAC) water to the upgrade of As Samra Wastewater Treatment Plant which discharges its effluent to the Zarqa River is investigated. Time series quality data that extends between October 2005 and December 2009 obtained by a state of the art telemetric monitoring system were analyzed for COD, EC, TP and TN at two monitoring stations located upstream and downstream of the confluence of the Zarqa River with KAC. The samples- means and the t-test showed that there has been significant improvement in the quality of the KAC water for COD, and TP. However, the improvement in the TN was found statistically insignificant, whereas the EC of the KAC was unaffected by the upgrade. Comparing the selected parameters with the standards and guidelines for using treated wastewater in irrigation showed that the KAC water has improved towards meeting the required standards and guidelines for treated wastewater reuse in irrigation.
Abstract: The use of sewage sludge and effluents from
wastewater treatment plants for irrigation of agricultural lands is on
the rise particularly in peri-urban areas of developing countries.
The reuse of nutrients and organic matter in treated wastewater
and sewage sludge via land application is a desirable goal. However,
trace or heavy metals present in sludge pose the risk of human or
phytotoxicity from land application. Long-term use of sewage
sludge, heavy metals can accumulate to phytotoxic levels and results
in reduced plants growth and/or enhanced metal concentrations in
plants, which consumed by animals then enter the food chain. In this
research, the amount of heavy metals was measured in plants
irrigated with wastewater and sludge application. For this purpose,
three pilots were made in a Shush treatment plant in south of Tehran.
Three plants species, spinach, lettuce and radish were selected and
planted in the pilots.First pilot was irrigated just with wastewater of
treatment plant and second pilot was irrigated with wastewater and
sludge application .Third pilot was irrigated with simulated heavy
metals solution equal 50 years of irrigation. The results indicate that
the average of amount of heavy metals Pb, Cd in three plant species
in first pilot were lower than permissible limits .In second pilot,
Cadmium accumulations are high in three species plants and more
than the standard limits. Concentration of Cd , Pb have exceed their
permitted limits in plants in third pilot . It was concluded that the use
of wastewater and sludge application in agricultural lands enriched
soils with heavy metals to concentrations that may pose potential
environmental and health risks in the long-term.
Abstract: The purpose of this work was to study the effect of the
irrigation using waste water with various electric conductivities (T(0,92ds/m), EC3 (3ds/m) and EC6 (6ds/m) on three varieties of
quinoa cultivated in a field south of Morocco. The follow up of the evolution of the chemical and agronomic parameters throughout the
culture made it possible to determine the responses to the saline stress in arid conditions. Results showed that the salinity caused the
depression of plant-s height, and reduced the fresh and dry weight in
the different parts of the three varieties plants. The increase of the irrigation water EC didn-t affect the yield for the varieties. Thus,
quinoa resisted to salinity and proved a behavior of a facultative halophyte crop. In fact, the cultivation of this using treated wastewater is feasible especially in arid areas for a sustainable use of
water resources.
Abstract: The evaluation of non-conventional water resources
on seed germination and seedling growth performance at early
growth stages is still in progress especially in forage crops. This
study was designed to test the effect of four types of water qualities
(treated wastewater (TWW), industrial water (IW), grey water (GW),
and Distilled water (DW)) on germination and early seedling vigor of
Leucaena leucocephala. The results showed that the germination
was not significantly affected by the different water qualities. Seed
germination reached maximum after 17, 14, 14, and 21 days under
GW, IW, TWW, and DW treatments, respectively. The highest mean
of shoot length was scored under the GW treatment. And, the highest
mean of root length was scored under DW which was not significant
from GW treatment. The means of shoot fresh was the highest under
the TWW. The means of root fresh weight was not significantly
different from each other's under different treatments. The growth
performance was in progress with no mortality during 21 days of
growth. Thus, the best non-conventional water qualities alternatives
based on the cleanness, nutrients, and toxicity are the GW, TWW and
IW, respectively.
Abstract: A sequential treatment of ozonation followed by a
Fenton or photo-Fenton process, using black light lamps (365 nm) in
this latter case, has been applied to remove a mixture of
pharmaceutical compounds and the generated by-products both in
ultrapure and secondary treated wastewater. The scientifictechnological
innovation of this study stems from the in situ
generation of hydrogen peroxide from the direct ozonation of
pharmaceuticals, and can later be used in the application of Fenton
and photo-Fenton processes. The compounds selected as models
were sulfamethoxazol and acetaminophen. It should be remarked that
the use of a second process is necessary as a result of the low
mineralization yield reached by the exclusive application of ozone.
Therefore, the influence of the water matrix has been studied in terms
of hydrogen peroxide concentration, individual compound
concentration and total organic carbon removed. Moreover, the
concentration of different iron species in solution has been measured.
Abstract: An experiment was implemented in a filed in the south of Morocco to evaluate the effects of domestic treated wastewater use for irrigation of amaranth crop under semi-arid conditions. Three varieties (A0020, A0057 & A211) were tested and irrigated using domestic treated wastewater EC1 (0,92 dS/m) as control, EC3 (3dS/m) and EC6 (6dS/m) obtained by adding sea water. In term of growth, an increase of the EC level of applied irrigation water reduced significantly the plant-s height, leaf area, fresh and dry weight measured at vegetative, flowering and maturity stage for all varieties. Even with the application of the EC6, yields were relatively higher in comparison with the once obtained in normal cultivation conditions. A significant accumulation of nitrate, chloride and sodium in soil layers during the crop cycle was noted. The use of treated waste water for its irrigation is proved to be possible. The variety A211 had showed to be less sensitive to salinity stress and it could be more promising its introduction to study area.
Abstract: An attempt was made for availability of wastewater reuse/reclamation for irrigation purposes using phytoremediation “the low cost and less technology", using six local aquatic macrophytes “e.g. T. angustifolia, B. maritimus, Ph. australis, A. donax, A. plantago-aquatica and M. longifolia (Linn)" as biological waste purifiers. Outdoor experiments/designs were conducted from May 03, 2007 till October 15, 2008, close to one of the main sewage channels of Sulaimani City/Iraq*. All processes were mainly based on conventional wastewater treatment processes, besides two further modifications were tested, the first was sand filtration pots, implanted by individual species of experimental macrophytes and the second was constructed wetlands implanted by experimental macrophytes all together. Untreated and treated wastewater samples were analyzed for their key physico-chemical properties (only heavy metals Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu with particular reference to removal efficiency by experimental macrophytes are highlighted in this paper). On the other hand, vertical contents of heavy metals were also evaluated from both pots and the cells of constructed wetland. After 135 days, macrophytes were harvested and heavy metals were analyzed in their biomass (roots/shoots) for removal efficiency assessment (i.e. uptake/ bioaccumulation rate). Results showed that; removal efficiency of all studied heavy metals was much higher in T. angustifolia followed by Ph. Australis, B. maritimus and A. donax in triple experiment sand pots. Constructed wetland experiments have revealed that; the more replicated constructed wetland cells the highest heavy metal removal efficiency was indicated.
Abstract: Yield and Crop Water Productivity are crucial issues
in sustainable agriculture, especially in high-demand resource crops such as sweet corn. This study was conducted to investigate
agronomic responses such as plant growth, yield and soil parameters (EC and Nitrate accumulation) to several deficit irrigation treatments
(100, 75, 50, 25 and 0% of ETm) applied during vegetative growth
stage, rainfed treatment was also tested.
The finding of this research indicates that under deficit irrigation
during vegetative growth stage applying 75% of ETm lead to increasing of 19.4% in terms of fresh ear yield, 9.4% in terms of dry grain yield, 10.5% in terms of number of ears per plant, 11.5% for
the 1000 grains weight and 19% in terms of crop water productivity compared with fully irrigated treatment. While those parameters in
addition to root, shoot and plant height has been affected by deficit
irrigation during vegetative growth stage when increasing water stress degree more than 50% of ETm.