Neuroplasticity or the flexibility of the neural system
is the ability of the brain to adapt to the lack or deterioration of sense
and the capability of the neural system to modify itself through
changing shape and function. Not only have studies revealed that
neuroplasticity does not end in childhood, but also they have proven
that it continues till the end of life and is not limited to the neural
system and covers the cognitive system as well. In the field of
cognition, neuroplasticity is defined as the ability to change old
thoughts according to new conditions and the individuals' differences
in using various styles of cognitive regulation inducing several social,
emotional and cognitive outcomes. This paper attempts to discuss and
define major theories and principles of neuroplasticity and elaborate
on nature or nurture.
[1] Stiles, Joan. (2008). the Fundamentals of Brain Development:
Integrating Nature and Nurture. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University
Press.W.-K. Chen, Linear Networks and Systems (Book style). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 1993, pp. 123–135.
[2] Haghgoo,Hojjatallah (2011), Fundamentals of Neural Science,Welfare
Science Publications.B. Smith, “An approach to graphs of linear forms
(Unpublished work style),” unpublished.
[3] Johnston MV. (2004). Clinical disorders of brain plasticity. Brain &
Development, 26:73-80.J. Wang, “Fundamentals of erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers arrays (Periodical style—Submitted for publication),” IEEE J.
Quantum Electron., submitted for publication.
[4] Michael S. Gazzaniga, Editor-in-Chief ،2009 Massachusetts Institute of
TechnologyY. Yorozu, M. Hirano, K. Oka, and Y. Tagawa, “Electron
spectroscopy studies on magneto-optical media and plastic substrate
interfaces(Translation Journals style),” IEEE Transl. J. Magn.Jpn., vol.
2, Aug. 1987, pp. 740–741 (Dig. 9th Annu. Conf. Magnetics Japan,
1982, p. 301).
[5] MichaelPluess& Jay Belsky the Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in
Early Human Development Perspectives on Psychological Science July
2009 vol. 4 no. 4 345-351J. U. Duncombe, “Infrared navigation—Part I:
An assessment of feasibility (Periodical style),” IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices, vol. ED-11, pp. 34–39, Jan. 1959. [6] Jones, S., Nyberg, L., Sandblom, J., Stigsdotter Neely, A., Ingvar,M.,
Petersson, K., et al. (2006). Cognitive and neuralplasticity in aging:
General and task-specifi c limitations.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral
Reviews, 30, 864-871.
[7] Mercado, E. (2008). Neural and cognitive plasticity: Frommaps to
minds. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 109-137.
[8] Miyake, A; Friedman, N.P; Emerson, M. J;Witzki, A.H; Howerter, A; &
Wagner, T. (2000).The unity and diversity of executive functions and
their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable
analysis. Cognitive Psychology,41, 49–100.
[9] Leber, A. B; Turk-Browne, N. B, Chun, M. M.(9 September 2008).
"Neural predictors of moment-to-moment fluctuations in cognitive
flexibility".ProcNatlAcadSci U S A105 ,36,13592–7
[10] Chikatla, S; Rebecca Reese (2007)."Cognitive Flexibility Theory".
University of South Alabama. Retrieved November,18, 2012 .
[11] Spiro, R. J,Jehng, J. C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext:
Theory and technology for the non-linear and mulit-dimensional
traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix and R. J. Spiro (Eds.),
Cognition, education, and multimedia: Exploration in high technology.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
[12] Cartwright, K. B.(2002). "Cognitive development and reading: The
relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading
comprehension in elementary school children".Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94, 56–63.
[13] Colzanto, L .S; van Wouwe, N. C; Lavender, T. J; &Hommel, B. (2006).
"Intelligence and cognitive flexibility: Fluid intelligence correlates with
feature "unbinding" across perception and action." Psychonomic Bulletin
&Review, 13, 1043–1048.
[14] Han, H. D; Park, H. W; Kee, B. S; Na, C; Na, D. E; &Zaichkowsky,
L.(1998). "Performance enhancement with low stress and anxiety
modulated by cognitive flexibility".Korean Neuropsychiatric
Association, 7, 221–226.
[15] Zelazo, P. D; Frye, D. (1998). "Cognitive complexity and control: II.
The development of executive function in childhood".Current Directions
in Psychological Science, 7, 121–126.
[16] Chelune, G. J; Baer, R .A. (1986). "Developmental norms for the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test".Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Neuropsychology, 8,219–228.
[17] Steinglass, J. E; Walsh B. T, Stern, Y. (May 2006). "Set shifting deficit
in anorexia nervosa".JIntNeuropsycholSoc, 12, (3). 431–5.
[18] Etchepareborda, M. C; Mulas, F. (Feb 2004). "Cognitive flexibility, an
additional symptom of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Is it a
therapeutically predictive element?” (Article in Spanish)".Rev Neurol 38
(Suppl 1), S97–102.
[19] Lundqvist, A., Grundström, K., Samuelsson, K., &Rönneberg, J.
(2010).Computerized training of working memory in a group of patients
[20] Samuels BA, Hen R: Neurogenesis and affective disorders. Eur J
Neurosci 2011; 33:1152–1159.
[21] Bruel-Jungerman E, Davis S, Laroche S (2007). "Brain plasticity
mechanisms and memory: A part of four". Neuroscientist13 (5): 492–
505.
[22] Flavell S, Greenberg ME (2008). "Signaling Mechanisms Plasticity of
the Nervous System". Annu Rev Neurosci 31: 563–90.
[23] Pascual-Leone A., Amedi A., Fregni F., Merabet L. B. (2005). "The
plastic human brain cortex". Annual Review of Neuroscience 28: 377–
401.
[24] DeCarolis NA, Eisch AJ: Hippocampal neurogenesis as a target for the
treatment of mental illness: a critical evaluation. Neuropharmacology
2010; 58:884–893.
[25] Cramer SC, Sur M, Dobkin BH, et al: Harnessing neuroplasticity for
clinical applications. Brain 2011; 134:1591–1609
[26] Hanson ND, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB: Depression, antidepressants, and
neurogenesis: a critical reappraisal. Neuropsychopharmacology2011;
36:2589–2602.
[27] Petrik D, Lagace DC, Eisch AJ: The neurogenesis hypothesis of
affective and anxiety disorders: are we mistaking the scaffolding for the
building? Neuropharmacology 2012; 62:21–34.
[28] Bolwig TG: How does electroconvulsive therapy work? theorieson its
mechanism. Can J Psychiatry 2011; 56:13–18.
[29] Ernst C, Olson AK, Pinel JP, et al: Antidepressant effects of exercise:
evidence for an adult-neurogenesis hypothesis? J Psychiatry Neurosci
2006; 31:84–92.
[30] Knöchel C, Oertel-Knöchel V, O’Dwyer L, et al: Cognitive and
behavioural effects of physical exercise in psychiatric patients.
ProgNeurobiol 2012; 96:46–68.
[31] Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Ciszewski A, et al: Smaller hippocampal
volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nat
Neurosci 2002; 5:1242–1247.
[32] Kremen WS, Koenen KC, Afari N, et al: Twin studies of posttraumatic
stress disorder: differentiating vulnerability factors from sequelae.
Neuropharmacology 2012; 62: 647–653
[33] Couillard-Despres S, Aigner L: In-vivo imaging of adult neurogenesis.
Eur J Neurosci 2011; 33:1037–1044.
[34] Bremner JD, Elzinga B, Schmahl C, et al: Structural and functional
plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain
Res 2008; 167:171–186.
[1] Stiles, Joan. (2008). the Fundamentals of Brain Development:
Integrating Nature and Nurture. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University
Press.W.-K. Chen, Linear Networks and Systems (Book style). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 1993, pp. 123–135.
[2] Haghgoo,Hojjatallah (2011), Fundamentals of Neural Science,Welfare
Science Publications.B. Smith, “An approach to graphs of linear forms
(Unpublished work style),” unpublished.
[3] Johnston MV. (2004). Clinical disorders of brain plasticity. Brain &
Development, 26:73-80.J. Wang, “Fundamentals of erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers arrays (Periodical style—Submitted for publication),” IEEE J.
Quantum Electron., submitted for publication.
[4] Michael S. Gazzaniga, Editor-in-Chief ،2009 Massachusetts Institute of
TechnologyY. Yorozu, M. Hirano, K. Oka, and Y. Tagawa, “Electron
spectroscopy studies on magneto-optical media and plastic substrate
interfaces(Translation Journals style),” IEEE Transl. J. Magn.Jpn., vol.
2, Aug. 1987, pp. 740–741 (Dig. 9th Annu. Conf. Magnetics Japan,
1982, p. 301).
[5] MichaelPluess& Jay Belsky the Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in
Early Human Development Perspectives on Psychological Science July
2009 vol. 4 no. 4 345-351J. U. Duncombe, “Infrared navigation—Part I:
An assessment of feasibility (Periodical style),” IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices, vol. ED-11, pp. 34–39, Jan. 1959. [6] Jones, S., Nyberg, L., Sandblom, J., Stigsdotter Neely, A., Ingvar,M.,
Petersson, K., et al. (2006). Cognitive and neuralplasticity in aging:
General and task-specifi c limitations.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral
Reviews, 30, 864-871.
[7] Mercado, E. (2008). Neural and cognitive plasticity: Frommaps to
minds. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 109-137.
[8] Miyake, A; Friedman, N.P; Emerson, M. J;Witzki, A.H; Howerter, A; &
Wagner, T. (2000).The unity and diversity of executive functions and
their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable
analysis. Cognitive Psychology,41, 49–100.
[9] Leber, A. B; Turk-Browne, N. B, Chun, M. M.(9 September 2008).
"Neural predictors of moment-to-moment fluctuations in cognitive
flexibility".ProcNatlAcadSci U S A105 ,36,13592–7
[10] Chikatla, S; Rebecca Reese (2007)."Cognitive Flexibility Theory".
University of South Alabama. Retrieved November,18, 2012 .
[11] Spiro, R. J,Jehng, J. C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext:
Theory and technology for the non-linear and mulit-dimensional
traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix and R. J. Spiro (Eds.),
Cognition, education, and multimedia: Exploration in high technology.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
[12] Cartwright, K. B.(2002). "Cognitive development and reading: The
relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading
comprehension in elementary school children".Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94, 56–63.
[13] Colzanto, L .S; van Wouwe, N. C; Lavender, T. J; &Hommel, B. (2006).
"Intelligence and cognitive flexibility: Fluid intelligence correlates with
feature "unbinding" across perception and action." Psychonomic Bulletin
&Review, 13, 1043–1048.
[14] Han, H. D; Park, H. W; Kee, B. S; Na, C; Na, D. E; &Zaichkowsky,
L.(1998). "Performance enhancement with low stress and anxiety
modulated by cognitive flexibility".Korean Neuropsychiatric
Association, 7, 221–226.
[15] Zelazo, P. D; Frye, D. (1998). "Cognitive complexity and control: II.
The development of executive function in childhood".Current Directions
in Psychological Science, 7, 121–126.
[16] Chelune, G. J; Baer, R .A. (1986). "Developmental norms for the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test".Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Neuropsychology, 8,219–228.
[17] Steinglass, J. E; Walsh B. T, Stern, Y. (May 2006). "Set shifting deficit
in anorexia nervosa".JIntNeuropsycholSoc, 12, (3). 431–5.
[18] Etchepareborda, M. C; Mulas, F. (Feb 2004). "Cognitive flexibility, an
additional symptom of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Is it a
therapeutically predictive element?” (Article in Spanish)".Rev Neurol 38
(Suppl 1), S97–102.
[19] Lundqvist, A., Grundström, K., Samuelsson, K., &Rönneberg, J.
(2010).Computerized training of working memory in a group of patients
[20] Samuels BA, Hen R: Neurogenesis and affective disorders. Eur J
Neurosci 2011; 33:1152–1159.
[21] Bruel-Jungerman E, Davis S, Laroche S (2007). "Brain plasticity
mechanisms and memory: A part of four". Neuroscientist13 (5): 492–
505.
[22] Flavell S, Greenberg ME (2008). "Signaling Mechanisms Plasticity of
the Nervous System". Annu Rev Neurosci 31: 563–90.
[23] Pascual-Leone A., Amedi A., Fregni F., Merabet L. B. (2005). "The
plastic human brain cortex". Annual Review of Neuroscience 28: 377–
401.
[24] DeCarolis NA, Eisch AJ: Hippocampal neurogenesis as a target for the
treatment of mental illness: a critical evaluation. Neuropharmacology
2010; 58:884–893.
[25] Cramer SC, Sur M, Dobkin BH, et al: Harnessing neuroplasticity for
clinical applications. Brain 2011; 134:1591–1609
[26] Hanson ND, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB: Depression, antidepressants, and
neurogenesis: a critical reappraisal. Neuropsychopharmacology2011;
36:2589–2602.
[27] Petrik D, Lagace DC, Eisch AJ: The neurogenesis hypothesis of
affective and anxiety disorders: are we mistaking the scaffolding for the
building? Neuropharmacology 2012; 62:21–34.
[28] Bolwig TG: How does electroconvulsive therapy work? theorieson its
mechanism. Can J Psychiatry 2011; 56:13–18.
[29] Ernst C, Olson AK, Pinel JP, et al: Antidepressant effects of exercise:
evidence for an adult-neurogenesis hypothesis? J Psychiatry Neurosci
2006; 31:84–92.
[30] Knöchel C, Oertel-Knöchel V, O’Dwyer L, et al: Cognitive and
behavioural effects of physical exercise in psychiatric patients.
ProgNeurobiol 2012; 96:46–68.
[31] Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Ciszewski A, et al: Smaller hippocampal
volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nat
Neurosci 2002; 5:1242–1247.
[32] Kremen WS, Koenen KC, Afari N, et al: Twin studies of posttraumatic
stress disorder: differentiating vulnerability factors from sequelae.
Neuropharmacology 2012; 62: 647–653
[33] Couillard-Despres S, Aigner L: In-vivo imaging of adult neurogenesis.
Eur J Neurosci 2011; 33:1037–1044.
[34] Bremner JD, Elzinga B, Schmahl C, et al: Structural and functional
plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain
Res 2008; 167:171–186.
@article{"International Journal of Medical, Medicine and Health Sciences:69597", author = "Leila Maleki and Ezatollah Ahmadi", title = "Neuroplasticity: A Fresh Beginning for Life", abstract = "Neuroplasticity or the flexibility of the neural system
is the ability of the brain to adapt to the lack or deterioration of sense
and the capability of the neural system to modify itself through
changing shape and function. Not only have studies revealed that
neuroplasticity does not end in childhood, but also they have proven
that it continues till the end of life and is not limited to the neural
system and covers the cognitive system as well. In the field of
cognition, neuroplasticity is defined as the ability to change old
thoughts according to new conditions and the individuals' differences
in using various styles of cognitive regulation inducing several social,
emotional and cognitive outcomes. This paper attempts to discuss and
define major theories and principles of neuroplasticity and elaborate
on nature or nurture.
", keywords = "Neuroplasticity, Cognitive plasticity, Plasticity
theories, Plasticity mechanisms.", volume = "9", number = "3", pages = "305-4", }
