Ex-Offenders’ Labelling, Stigmatisation and Unsuccessful Re-Integration as Factors Leading into Recidivism: A South African Context
For successful re-integration, the individual offender must adapt and transform, which requires that the offender should adopt and internalise socially approved norms, attitudes, values, and beliefs. However, the offender’s labelling and community stigmatisation decide the destination of the offender. Community involvement in ex-offenders’ re-integration is an important issue in efforts to reduce recidivism and to control overcrowding in our correctional facilities. Crime is a social problem that requires society to come together to fight against it. This study was conducted in the Limpopo Province in Vhembe District Municipality within four local municipalities, namely Musina, Makhado, Mutale, and Thulamela. A total number of 30 participants were interviewed, and all were members of the Community Corrections Forums. This was necessitated by the fact that Musina is a very small area, which compelled the Department of Correctional Services to combine the two (Musina and Makhado) into one social re-integration entity. This is a qualitative research study where participants were selected through the use of purposive sampling. Participants were selected based on the value they would add to this study in order to achieve the objectives. The data collection method of this study was the focus group, which comprised of three groups of 10 participants each. Thulamela and Mutale local municipalities formed a group with (10) participants each, whereas Musina (2) and Makhado (8) formed another. Results indicate that the current situation is not conducive for re-integration to be successful. Participants raised many factors that need serious redress, namely offenders’ discrimination, lack of forgiveness by members of the community, which is fuelled by lack of community awareness due to the failure of the Department of Correctional Services in educating communities on ex-offenders’ re-integration.
[1] S. Bontrager, W. Bales and T. Chiricos, T. Race, ethnicity, threat and the labelling of Convicted Felons. Journal of criminology, Vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 589-622, 2005.
[2] D.R. Kavish. Interactionist labelling: Formal and informal labelling’s effects on juvenile delinquency. Thesis. Paper 883.
[3] L.M. Johnson, R.L. Simons and R.D. Conger, R. D. 2004. Criminal Justice System Involvement and Continuity of Youth Crime: A Longitudinal Analysis. Youth & Society, p3-36. 2004.
[4] E.A. Sadiq, E.A and Magadze, T.O. “The Effectiveness of Contemporary Rehabilitation Tool: First Time Offenders versus Repeat Offenders”. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR): Vol.4, no. 4, pp. 86-97, April 2020.
[5] T.O. Magadze. “A study of the participation of Vhembe District Community Corrections Forum (CCF) members in the re-integration of ex-offenders into the community.” Unpublished.
[6] D.L. Kgosimore. “Restorative Justice as an alternative way of dealing with crime”. Unpublished paper presented at the Restorative Justice and Community Facilitation Conference, Johannesburg, November. 2001
[7] M. Tshtangoni and J Francis. “Effectiveness of Traditional Leaders in Engaging Communities on Development Matters in Vhembe District of South Africa” Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 49, no. 1-2, pp. 49-61. October 2017.
[8] V. Chikadzi. “Challenges facing ex-offenders when reintegrating into mainstream society in Gauteng,” South Africa. Department of Social Work, Stellenbosch University, Vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 67-86. 2017.
[9] R. Azzakani. “Committee Chair Express concern over overcrowding in our correctional centres: participate in parliamentary.” Parliamentary.gov.za. 2019.
[10] J.A. Samuel. “Challenges that offenders face upon release that contribute to recidivism in the Department of Correctional Services: a case study of the West Coast Medium” ' A' Correctional Centre in the Western Cape. 2010.
[11] Ministry of Justice. “Research Summary: Accommodation, Homelessness and Reoffending of Prisoners.” London. Publisher: Ministry of Justice. 2012.
[12] V. Padayachee. “Department of Correctional Services, Republic of South Africa: Creating paths for offender reintegration conference.” Pretoria: Hotel Kameldift East. Retrieved March 2020, (Unpublished conference proceedings).
[13] South Africa. “Department of Correctional Services White Paper on Corrections,” Government Printers, Pretoria. 2005.
[14] South Africa: Constitution; Act No 108 of 1996 as adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly, Government Printers, Pretoria.
[15] K. Workman, “Māori offenders, whānau and prisoner reintegration.” Wellington: Robson Hanan Trust. 2011a. page 10.
[16] N. Padfield, “Who to Release? Parole, fairness and criminal justice.” Willan Publications. 2008.
[17] F. Taxman, D. Young and J. Byrne, “Transforming offender re-entry into public safety: Lessons from OJP's re-entry partnership Initiative.” Justice Policy and Research, 2004. Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 101-128.
[18] F. Taxman, “The Offender and Re-entry: Supporting Active Participation in Reintegration in Federal Probation,” Virginia Commonwealth University, Vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 31-35. 2004.
[19] K.J. Fox, “Second chances: A comparison of civic engagement in offender re-entry programs. Criminal Justice Review,” University of Vermont. Routledge Taylor & Francis group, Vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 335-400. 2010.
[20] B. Crewe, “Depth, weight, tightness: Revisiting the pains of imprisonment,” Punishment & Society, University of Cambridge: SAGE publications, Vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 509-529. 2011.
[21] K. Workman, “Prisoner Reintegration in New Zealand – The Past and a Possible Future,” A paper presented at the 5th Restorative Justice Aotearoa Conference, and the 3rd Restorative Practices International Annual Conference, 23-27 November 2011, Amora Hotel, Wellington, New Zealand.
[22] A.J. Shinkfield and J. Graffam, “Community reintegration of ex-prisoners: Type and degree of change in variables influencing successful reintegration,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 53, no 1, pp. 29-42. 2009.
[23] O. Beck and M. Kett, “International Handbook of Penology and Criminal Justice,” New York: Taylor & Francis. 2008.
[24] T. Chiricos, K. Barrick, W. Bales and S. Bontrager, “The labelling of convicted felons and its consequences for recidivism,” Journal of criminology, Vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 547-581. 2007.
[25] A. Giddens, “Sociology,” 4th (ed.), Cambridge. 2001, Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers.
[26] H.S. Becker, “Outsiders: studies in the sociology of deviance,” 1963. New York: Free Press.
[27] F.M. Schmalleger, “Criminal justice: A brief introduction of Criminal Justice” 5th (ed.). Publisher Cram101 Incorporated: N.J Prentice-Hall. 2006.
[28] M. Pittaro, “Prisoner reintegration challenges of assimilation and crime desistance,” Professional Issues in Criminal Justice, Vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1-20. 2008.
[29] D.M. Myer, “Qualitative research in business and management,” University of Auckland, New Zealand, 2009, Sage.
[30] N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln, “Strategies of qualitative inquiry,” Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications, 2003.
[31] C. Domegan and D. Fleming, “Marketing research in Ireland: Theory and practice,” 3rd (ed.), Dublin: Gill & MacMillan, 2007.
[32] P. Liamputtong, “Qualitative research methods,” 3rd (ed.). Oxford University Press. 2009.
[33] M.Q. Patton, “Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods,” 3rd (ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications, 2002.
[34] A.S. De Vos and H. Strydom, “Research at grassroots for the social sciences and human service professions,” 4th (ed.), Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2012.
[35] N.K. Malhotra and D.F. Birks, “Marketing research: An applied approach,” 3rd (ed.), European edition England: Prentice Hall, 2006.
[36] S.J. Kubayi, “Subject constructions in Xitsonga. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies,” Journal of language, Vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 39-59. 2013.
[37] J.K. Petersen, “The Danish Demographic Database: longitudinal data for advanced demographic methods” Research Report 15, 2000, Danish Center for Demographic Research, Odense.
[38] G. Haddock and G. Maio, “Psychology of Attitudes,” April 2012, SAGE Publication Ltd.
[39] A.Y. Hass and C.E. Saxon, “From the Inside/Out: Greene County Jail Inmates on Restorative Re-entry,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 1037-1062, August 2012
[40] South Africa: Constitution; Act No 108 of 1996 as adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly, Government Printers, Pretoria.
[41] J.H. Laub and R.J. Sampson, “Understanding desistance from crime,” In Tonry, M. (Ed.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p1-69. 2003.
[42] L. Muntingh, “Offender rehabilitation and reintegration: Taking the White Paper on Corrections forward,” 2007. http://www.communitylawcentre.org.za/Projects/Civil-Society-Prison-Reform/publications/cspri-publications/offender-reintegrationno_ 10.pdf/ at page 4 (accessed on June 2019).
[43] R. Burnett and S. Maruna, “The kindness of prisoners: Strengths-based resettlement in theory and in action,” Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, Vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 83-106. 2006.
[44] G. Bazemore and J. Stinchcomb, “A civic engagement model of re-entry: Involving community through service and restorative justice,” Federal Probation, Vol. 68, no. 2, pp.14-24. 2004.
[45] S.P. O’Brien and G. Bazemore, “Crime, government, and communities: Tracking the Dimension of Restorative Justice,” Public Organisational Review, Vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1-219. 2005.
[46] P.M. Harris and K.S. Keller, “Ex-offenders need not apply,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 6-30, February 1, 2005.
[47] C. Cesaroni, Releasing sex offenders into the community through "circles of support"--a means of reintegrating the "worst of the worst". Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, Vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 85–98.
[1] S. Bontrager, W. Bales and T. Chiricos, T. Race, ethnicity, threat and the labelling of Convicted Felons. Journal of criminology, Vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 589-622, 2005.
[2] D.R. Kavish. Interactionist labelling: Formal and informal labelling’s effects on juvenile delinquency. Thesis. Paper 883.
[3] L.M. Johnson, R.L. Simons and R.D. Conger, R. D. 2004. Criminal Justice System Involvement and Continuity of Youth Crime: A Longitudinal Analysis. Youth & Society, p3-36. 2004.
[4] E.A. Sadiq, E.A and Magadze, T.O. “The Effectiveness of Contemporary Rehabilitation Tool: First Time Offenders versus Repeat Offenders”. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR): Vol.4, no. 4, pp. 86-97, April 2020.
[5] T.O. Magadze. “A study of the participation of Vhembe District Community Corrections Forum (CCF) members in the re-integration of ex-offenders into the community.” Unpublished.
[6] D.L. Kgosimore. “Restorative Justice as an alternative way of dealing with crime”. Unpublished paper presented at the Restorative Justice and Community Facilitation Conference, Johannesburg, November. 2001
[7] M. Tshtangoni and J Francis. “Effectiveness of Traditional Leaders in Engaging Communities on Development Matters in Vhembe District of South Africa” Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 49, no. 1-2, pp. 49-61. October 2017.
[8] V. Chikadzi. “Challenges facing ex-offenders when reintegrating into mainstream society in Gauteng,” South Africa. Department of Social Work, Stellenbosch University, Vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 67-86. 2017.
[9] R. Azzakani. “Committee Chair Express concern over overcrowding in our correctional centres: participate in parliamentary.” Parliamentary.gov.za. 2019.
[10] J.A. Samuel. “Challenges that offenders face upon release that contribute to recidivism in the Department of Correctional Services: a case study of the West Coast Medium” ' A' Correctional Centre in the Western Cape. 2010.
[11] Ministry of Justice. “Research Summary: Accommodation, Homelessness and Reoffending of Prisoners.” London. Publisher: Ministry of Justice. 2012.
[12] V. Padayachee. “Department of Correctional Services, Republic of South Africa: Creating paths for offender reintegration conference.” Pretoria: Hotel Kameldift East. Retrieved March 2020, (Unpublished conference proceedings).
[13] South Africa. “Department of Correctional Services White Paper on Corrections,” Government Printers, Pretoria. 2005.
[14] South Africa: Constitution; Act No 108 of 1996 as adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly, Government Printers, Pretoria.
[15] K. Workman, “Māori offenders, whānau and prisoner reintegration.” Wellington: Robson Hanan Trust. 2011a. page 10.
[16] N. Padfield, “Who to Release? Parole, fairness and criminal justice.” Willan Publications. 2008.
[17] F. Taxman, D. Young and J. Byrne, “Transforming offender re-entry into public safety: Lessons from OJP's re-entry partnership Initiative.” Justice Policy and Research, 2004. Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 101-128.
[18] F. Taxman, “The Offender and Re-entry: Supporting Active Participation in Reintegration in Federal Probation,” Virginia Commonwealth University, Vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 31-35. 2004.
[19] K.J. Fox, “Second chances: A comparison of civic engagement in offender re-entry programs. Criminal Justice Review,” University of Vermont. Routledge Taylor & Francis group, Vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 335-400. 2010.
[20] B. Crewe, “Depth, weight, tightness: Revisiting the pains of imprisonment,” Punishment & Society, University of Cambridge: SAGE publications, Vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 509-529. 2011.
[21] K. Workman, “Prisoner Reintegration in New Zealand – The Past and a Possible Future,” A paper presented at the 5th Restorative Justice Aotearoa Conference, and the 3rd Restorative Practices International Annual Conference, 23-27 November 2011, Amora Hotel, Wellington, New Zealand.
[22] A.J. Shinkfield and J. Graffam, “Community reintegration of ex-prisoners: Type and degree of change in variables influencing successful reintegration,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 53, no 1, pp. 29-42. 2009.
[23] O. Beck and M. Kett, “International Handbook of Penology and Criminal Justice,” New York: Taylor & Francis. 2008.
[24] T. Chiricos, K. Barrick, W. Bales and S. Bontrager, “The labelling of convicted felons and its consequences for recidivism,” Journal of criminology, Vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 547-581. 2007.
[25] A. Giddens, “Sociology,” 4th (ed.), Cambridge. 2001, Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers.
[26] H.S. Becker, “Outsiders: studies in the sociology of deviance,” 1963. New York: Free Press.
[27] F.M. Schmalleger, “Criminal justice: A brief introduction of Criminal Justice” 5th (ed.). Publisher Cram101 Incorporated: N.J Prentice-Hall. 2006.
[28] M. Pittaro, “Prisoner reintegration challenges of assimilation and crime desistance,” Professional Issues in Criminal Justice, Vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1-20. 2008.
[29] D.M. Myer, “Qualitative research in business and management,” University of Auckland, New Zealand, 2009, Sage.
[30] N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln, “Strategies of qualitative inquiry,” Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications, 2003.
[31] C. Domegan and D. Fleming, “Marketing research in Ireland: Theory and practice,” 3rd (ed.), Dublin: Gill & MacMillan, 2007.
[32] P. Liamputtong, “Qualitative research methods,” 3rd (ed.). Oxford University Press. 2009.
[33] M.Q. Patton, “Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods,” 3rd (ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications, 2002.
[34] A.S. De Vos and H. Strydom, “Research at grassroots for the social sciences and human service professions,” 4th (ed.), Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2012.
[35] N.K. Malhotra and D.F. Birks, “Marketing research: An applied approach,” 3rd (ed.), European edition England: Prentice Hall, 2006.
[36] S.J. Kubayi, “Subject constructions in Xitsonga. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies,” Journal of language, Vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 39-59. 2013.
[37] J.K. Petersen, “The Danish Demographic Database: longitudinal data for advanced demographic methods” Research Report 15, 2000, Danish Center for Demographic Research, Odense.
[38] G. Haddock and G. Maio, “Psychology of Attitudes,” April 2012, SAGE Publication Ltd.
[39] A.Y. Hass and C.E. Saxon, “From the Inside/Out: Greene County Jail Inmates on Restorative Re-entry,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 1037-1062, August 2012
[40] South Africa: Constitution; Act No 108 of 1996 as adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly, Government Printers, Pretoria.
[41] J.H. Laub and R.J. Sampson, “Understanding desistance from crime,” In Tonry, M. (Ed.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p1-69. 2003.
[42] L. Muntingh, “Offender rehabilitation and reintegration: Taking the White Paper on Corrections forward,” 2007. http://www.communitylawcentre.org.za/Projects/Civil-Society-Prison-Reform/publications/cspri-publications/offender-reintegrationno_ 10.pdf/ at page 4 (accessed on June 2019).
[43] R. Burnett and S. Maruna, “The kindness of prisoners: Strengths-based resettlement in theory and in action,” Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, Vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 83-106. 2006.
[44] G. Bazemore and J. Stinchcomb, “A civic engagement model of re-entry: Involving community through service and restorative justice,” Federal Probation, Vol. 68, no. 2, pp.14-24. 2004.
[45] S.P. O’Brien and G. Bazemore, “Crime, government, and communities: Tracking the Dimension of Restorative Justice,” Public Organisational Review, Vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1-219. 2005.
[46] P.M. Harris and K.S. Keller, “Ex-offenders need not apply,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 6-30, February 1, 2005.
[47] C. Cesaroni, Releasing sex offenders into the community through "circles of support"--a means of reintegrating the "worst of the worst". Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, Vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 85–98.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:80193", author = "Tshimangadzo Oscar Magadze", title = "Ex-Offenders’ Labelling, Stigmatisation and Unsuccessful Re-Integration as Factors Leading into Recidivism: A South African Context", abstract = "For successful re-integration, the individual offender must adapt and transform, which requires that the offender should adopt and internalise socially approved norms, attitudes, values, and beliefs. However, the offender’s labelling and community stigmatisation decide the destination of the offender. Community involvement in ex-offenders’ re-integration is an important issue in efforts to reduce recidivism and to control overcrowding in our correctional facilities. Crime is a social problem that requires society to come together to fight against it. This study was conducted in the Limpopo Province in Vhembe District Municipality within four local municipalities, namely Musina, Makhado, Mutale, and Thulamela. A total number of 30 participants were interviewed, and all were members of the Community Corrections Forums. This was necessitated by the fact that Musina is a very small area, which compelled the Department of Correctional Services to combine the two (Musina and Makhado) into one social re-integration entity. This is a qualitative research study where participants were selected through the use of purposive sampling. Participants were selected based on the value they would add to this study in order to achieve the objectives. The data collection method of this study was the focus group, which comprised of three groups of 10 participants each. Thulamela and Mutale local municipalities formed a group with (10) participants each, whereas Musina (2) and Makhado (8) formed another. Results indicate that the current situation is not conducive for re-integration to be successful. Participants raised many factors that need serious redress, namely offenders’ discrimination, lack of forgiveness by members of the community, which is fuelled by lack of community awareness due to the failure of the Department of Correctional Services in educating communities on ex-offenders’ re-integration.
", keywords = "Ex-offender, labelling, re-integration, stigmatisation.", volume = "15", number = "1", pages = "128-10", }
