Evidence of Climate Change (Global Warming) and Temperature Increases in Arctic Areas
This paper contributes to the debate on the proximate
causes of climate change. Also, it discusses the impact of the global
temperature increases since the beginning of the twentieth century
and the effectiveness of climate change models in isolating the
primary cause (anthropogenic influences or natural variability in
temperature) of the observed temperature increases that occurred
within this period. The paper argues that if climate scientist and
policymakers ignore the anthropogenic influence (greenhouse gases)
on global warming on the pretense of lack of agreement among
various climate models and their inability to account for all the
necessary factors of global warming at all levels the current efforts of
greenhouse emissions control and global warming as a whole could
be exacerbated.
[1] G. Marland, R.A. Pielke, Sr., M. Apps, R. Avissar, R.A. Bett, K.J.
Davis, K. Kuappi, J. Katzenberger, K.G. MacDicken, R.P. Neilson,
J.O. Niles, D.D.S. Niyogi, R.J. Norby, N. Pena, N., Sampson and Y.
Xue, 2003. The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon
management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy.
Climate Policy,3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[2] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
UNEP/IUC/99/2, Information Unit for Conventions, UNEP, Geneva,
1995.
[3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate change
1994, radiative forcing of climate change and the evaluation of the IPCC
IS92 emission scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.
In Marland et al., 2003. The climatic impacts of land surface change and
carbon management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation
policy. Climate Policy, 3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[4] F.S. Chapin III, M. Sturm, M.C. Serreze, J.P. McFadden, J.R. Key, A.H
Lloyd, A.D. McGuire, T.S. Rupp, A.H. Lynch, J.P. Schimel, J.
Beringer, W.L. Chapman, H.E. Epstein, E.S. Euskirchen,, L.D.
Hinzman, G. Jia, C. L. Ping, K.D. Tape, C.D.C. Thompson, D.A.
Walker, and J.M. Welker. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic
summer warming. Science, Vol. 310, 2005, pp. 657-660.
[5] E. Cluassen.. An effect approach to climate change. Science, Vol. 306,
2004, pp. 816-817.
[6] O.M. Johannessen, L. Bengtsson, M.W. Miles, S.I. Kuzmina, V.A.
Semenov, G.V. Aleeksev, A.P. Nagurnyi, V.F. Zackharov, L.P.
Bobylev, L.H. Petersson, K. Hasselmann and H.P. Cattle. Arctic
climate change: observed and modeled temperature and sea-ice
variability. Tellus, 56A, 2004, pp. 328-341.
[7] R.W. Christopherson. Geosystems: An introduction to physical
geography. Fifth edition, Pearson education Inc., Upper Saddle. New
Jersey, 2003.
[8] A. Strahler, and A. Strahler. Introducing physical geography. Third
edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, 2003.
[9] A. Getis, J. Getis, and J.D. Fellmann. Introduction to Geography. Eighth
edition. The MacGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, New York,
2002.
[10] W.L. Chameides and M. Bergin. Soot takes center stage. Science, Vol.
297, 2002, pp. 2214-2215.
[11] T.L. Delworth and T.R. Knutson. Simulation of early 20th century
global warming. Science, Vol. 287, 2000, pp. 2246-2250.
[12] P. Thejll and K. Lassen. Solar forcing of the Northern Hemisphere land
air temperature: New Data. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-
Terrestrial Physics, 62, 2000, pp. 1207-1213.
[13] J. Overpeck, K. Hughen, D. Hardy, R. Bradley, R. Case, M.A. Douglas,
B. Finney, K. Gajewski, G. Jacoby, A. Jennings, S. Lamoureux, G.
Lasca, G. MacDonald, J. Moore, M. Retelle, S. Smith, A. Wolfe, G.
Zielinski. Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries.
Science, Vol. 278, 1997, pp. 1251-1256.
[14] S.F.B. Tett, P.A. Scott, M.R. Allen, W.J. Ingram and J.F..B Mitchell
J.F.B. Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near the earth-s
surface. Nature, Vol. 300, 1999, pp. 569-573.
[15] J. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, J. Leieveld. The missing
climate forcing [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Science, Vol. 352, No. 1350, 1997, pp. 231-241.
[16] D.J. Thomson. The seasons, global temperature, and precession. Science,
New Series, Vol. 268, No. 5207, 1995, pp. 59-68.
[17] H.J. de Blij and P.O. Muller. Concepts and Regions in Geography (first
edition). John Willey and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2003.
[18] R. Kerr. Pollutant haze cools the greenhouse. Science, Vol. 255, 1992,
pp. 682-683.
[19] T.R. Karl, R.W. Knight, G. Kukla, and G. Gavin. Evidence for the
radiative effects of anthropogenic sulphate aerosols in the observed
climate record. In E. Friss-Christensen and K. Lassen. Length of solar
cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely associated with climate.
Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032,1991, pp. 698-700.
[20] R. Aanes, B. Saeher, F.M. Smith, E.J. Cooper, P.A. Wookey and N.A.
Oritsland,. The Arctic Oscillation predicts effects of climate change in
two trophic levels in a high-arctic ecosystem. Ecology Letters, 5, 2002,
pp. 445-453.
[21] R.A. Kerr. A new force in high-latitude climate. Science, Vol. 284, 1999,
pp. 241-284.
[22] K.M. Lugina, P.Y. Groisman, K.Y. Vinnikov, V.V. Koknaeva and
N.B. Speranskaya. Monthly surface air temperature time series areaaveraged
over the 30 degree latitudinal belts of the globe, 1881-2004. In
Trends: A compendium of data on global change. Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 2005.
[23] D. King. Climate change science: adapt, mitigate, or ignore? Science.
Vol. 303, 2004, pp. 176-177.
[24] T.J. Crowley. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years.
Science, Vol. 289, 2000, pp. 270-276.
[25] K.Y. Vinnikov, A. Robock, R.J. Stouffer, J.E. Walsh, C.L. Parkinson,
D.J. Cavalieri, J.F. Mitchell, D. Garret, and V.F. Zakharov. Global
warming and Northern Hemisphere sea ice extent. Science, Vol. 286,
1999, pp. 1934-1937.
[26] Kerr, R.A., 1991. Global temperature hits record again. Science, Vol.
251, p. 251.
[27] Kerr, R.A., 1988. Is the greenhouse here? Science, Vol. 239, pp. 559-
561.
[28] J.E. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, I Tegen, and E. Matthews .
Climate forcings in the Industrial era. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Vol.
95, 1998, pp. 12753-12758.
[29] P.M. Vitousek. Global environmental change: An introduction. Annu.
Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23, 1992, pp.1-14.
[30] W.C. Oechel and G.L. Vourlitis. The effects of climate change on landatmospheric
feedbacks in arctic tundra regions. Tree. Vol. 9, No. 9,
1994, pp.324-327.
[31] V. Brovkin, A. Ganopolski, M. Claussen, C. Kubatzki, and V.
Petoukhov. Modeling climate response to historical land cover change.
GlobalEcology and Biogeography, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1999, pp. 509-517.
[32] S. Manabe, M.J. Spelman, and R.J. Stouffer. Transient responses of a
coupled ocean-atmospheric model to gradual changes of atmospheric
CO2. Part II: Seasonal response. Journal of Climate, Vol. 5, 1922, pp.
105-126.
[33] P.E. Damon and S.M. Kunen. Global cooling? Science, New Series, Vol.
193, No. 4252, 1976, pp. 447-453.
[34] National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Global
Climate Change: Evidence-How Do We Know, April 26, 2010.
www.climate.nasa.gov.
[35] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Global
Climate Change Indicators, April 13, 2010. www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
[36] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change
2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis," www.ipcc.ch.
[37] National Research Council of the National Academies. Surface
Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years, 2006.
www.nap.edu.
[38] Worldwatch Institute News. Melting of earth-s ice cover reaches high,
2000, http://www.worldwatch.org/press.
[39] British Academy Survey, 2004.
[40] E. Friss-Christensen and K. Lassen. Length of solar cycle: an indicator
of solar activity closely associated with climate. Science, New Series,
Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991, pp. 698-700.
[41] G. C. Reid. Nature, 329, 142, 1987. In E. Friss-Christensen, and K.
Lassen. Length of solar cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely
associated with climate. Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991,
pp. 698-700.
[42] M.I. Hoffert, A.J. Callegari, and C.T. Hsieh. . J. Geophys. Res. 85,
1980, pp. 6667 In E. Friss-Christensen, and K. Lassen. Length of solar
cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely associated with climate.
Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991, pp. 698-700.
[43] R.A. Kerr. Climate change: Three degrees of consensus. Science, Vol.
305, No. 5686, 2004, pp. 932-934.
[1] G. Marland, R.A. Pielke, Sr., M. Apps, R. Avissar, R.A. Bett, K.J.
Davis, K. Kuappi, J. Katzenberger, K.G. MacDicken, R.P. Neilson,
J.O. Niles, D.D.S. Niyogi, R.J. Norby, N. Pena, N., Sampson and Y.
Xue, 2003. The climatic impacts of land surface change and carbon
management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation policy.
Climate Policy,3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[2] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
UNEP/IUC/99/2, Information Unit for Conventions, UNEP, Geneva,
1995.
[3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate change
1994, radiative forcing of climate change and the evaluation of the IPCC
IS92 emission scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.
In Marland et al., 2003. The climatic impacts of land surface change and
carbon management, and the implications for climate-change mitigation
policy. Climate Policy, 3, 2003, pp. 149-157.
[4] F.S. Chapin III, M. Sturm, M.C. Serreze, J.P. McFadden, J.R. Key, A.H
Lloyd, A.D. McGuire, T.S. Rupp, A.H. Lynch, J.P. Schimel, J.
Beringer, W.L. Chapman, H.E. Epstein, E.S. Euskirchen,, L.D.
Hinzman, G. Jia, C. L. Ping, K.D. Tape, C.D.C. Thompson, D.A.
Walker, and J.M. Welker. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic
summer warming. Science, Vol. 310, 2005, pp. 657-660.
[5] E. Cluassen.. An effect approach to climate change. Science, Vol. 306,
2004, pp. 816-817.
[6] O.M. Johannessen, L. Bengtsson, M.W. Miles, S.I. Kuzmina, V.A.
Semenov, G.V. Aleeksev, A.P. Nagurnyi, V.F. Zackharov, L.P.
Bobylev, L.H. Petersson, K. Hasselmann and H.P. Cattle. Arctic
climate change: observed and modeled temperature and sea-ice
variability. Tellus, 56A, 2004, pp. 328-341.
[7] R.W. Christopherson. Geosystems: An introduction to physical
geography. Fifth edition, Pearson education Inc., Upper Saddle. New
Jersey, 2003.
[8] A. Strahler, and A. Strahler. Introducing physical geography. Third
edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York, 2003.
[9] A. Getis, J. Getis, and J.D. Fellmann. Introduction to Geography. Eighth
edition. The MacGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, New York,
2002.
[10] W.L. Chameides and M. Bergin. Soot takes center stage. Science, Vol.
297, 2002, pp. 2214-2215.
[11] T.L. Delworth and T.R. Knutson. Simulation of early 20th century
global warming. Science, Vol. 287, 2000, pp. 2246-2250.
[12] P. Thejll and K. Lassen. Solar forcing of the Northern Hemisphere land
air temperature: New Data. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-
Terrestrial Physics, 62, 2000, pp. 1207-1213.
[13] J. Overpeck, K. Hughen, D. Hardy, R. Bradley, R. Case, M.A. Douglas,
B. Finney, K. Gajewski, G. Jacoby, A. Jennings, S. Lamoureux, G.
Lasca, G. MacDonald, J. Moore, M. Retelle, S. Smith, A. Wolfe, G.
Zielinski. Arctic environmental change of the last four centuries.
Science, Vol. 278, 1997, pp. 1251-1256.
[14] S.F.B. Tett, P.A. Scott, M.R. Allen, W.J. Ingram and J.F..B Mitchell
J.F.B. Causes of twentieth-century temperature change near the earth-s
surface. Nature, Vol. 300, 1999, pp. 569-573.
[15] J. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, J. Leieveld. The missing
climate forcing [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions: Biological
Science, Vol. 352, No. 1350, 1997, pp. 231-241.
[16] D.J. Thomson. The seasons, global temperature, and precession. Science,
New Series, Vol. 268, No. 5207, 1995, pp. 59-68.
[17] H.J. de Blij and P.O. Muller. Concepts and Regions in Geography (first
edition). John Willey and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2003.
[18] R. Kerr. Pollutant haze cools the greenhouse. Science, Vol. 255, 1992,
pp. 682-683.
[19] T.R. Karl, R.W. Knight, G. Kukla, and G. Gavin. Evidence for the
radiative effects of anthropogenic sulphate aerosols in the observed
climate record. In E. Friss-Christensen and K. Lassen. Length of solar
cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely associated with climate.
Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032,1991, pp. 698-700.
[20] R. Aanes, B. Saeher, F.M. Smith, E.J. Cooper, P.A. Wookey and N.A.
Oritsland,. The Arctic Oscillation predicts effects of climate change in
two trophic levels in a high-arctic ecosystem. Ecology Letters, 5, 2002,
pp. 445-453.
[21] R.A. Kerr. A new force in high-latitude climate. Science, Vol. 284, 1999,
pp. 241-284.
[22] K.M. Lugina, P.Y. Groisman, K.Y. Vinnikov, V.V. Koknaeva and
N.B. Speranskaya. Monthly surface air temperature time series areaaveraged
over the 30 degree latitudinal belts of the globe, 1881-2004. In
Trends: A compendium of data on global change. Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 2005.
[23] D. King. Climate change science: adapt, mitigate, or ignore? Science.
Vol. 303, 2004, pp. 176-177.
[24] T.J. Crowley. Causes of climate change over the past 1000 years.
Science, Vol. 289, 2000, pp. 270-276.
[25] K.Y. Vinnikov, A. Robock, R.J. Stouffer, J.E. Walsh, C.L. Parkinson,
D.J. Cavalieri, J.F. Mitchell, D. Garret, and V.F. Zakharov. Global
warming and Northern Hemisphere sea ice extent. Science, Vol. 286,
1999, pp. 1934-1937.
[26] Kerr, R.A., 1991. Global temperature hits record again. Science, Vol.
251, p. 251.
[27] Kerr, R.A., 1988. Is the greenhouse here? Science, Vol. 239, pp. 559-
561.
[28] J.E. Hansen, M. Sato, A. Lacis, R. Ruedy, I Tegen, and E. Matthews .
Climate forcings in the Industrial era. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Vol.
95, 1998, pp. 12753-12758.
[29] P.M. Vitousek. Global environmental change: An introduction. Annu.
Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23, 1992, pp.1-14.
[30] W.C. Oechel and G.L. Vourlitis. The effects of climate change on landatmospheric
feedbacks in arctic tundra regions. Tree. Vol. 9, No. 9,
1994, pp.324-327.
[31] V. Brovkin, A. Ganopolski, M. Claussen, C. Kubatzki, and V.
Petoukhov. Modeling climate response to historical land cover change.
GlobalEcology and Biogeography, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1999, pp. 509-517.
[32] S. Manabe, M.J. Spelman, and R.J. Stouffer. Transient responses of a
coupled ocean-atmospheric model to gradual changes of atmospheric
CO2. Part II: Seasonal response. Journal of Climate, Vol. 5, 1922, pp.
105-126.
[33] P.E. Damon and S.M. Kunen. Global cooling? Science, New Series, Vol.
193, No. 4252, 1976, pp. 447-453.
[34] National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Global
Climate Change: Evidence-How Do We Know, April 26, 2010.
www.climate.nasa.gov.
[35] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Global
Climate Change Indicators, April 13, 2010. www.ncdc.noaa.gov.
[36] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change
2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis," www.ipcc.ch.
[37] National Research Council of the National Academies. Surface
Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years, 2006.
www.nap.edu.
[38] Worldwatch Institute News. Melting of earth-s ice cover reaches high,
2000, http://www.worldwatch.org/press.
[39] British Academy Survey, 2004.
[40] E. Friss-Christensen and K. Lassen. Length of solar cycle: an indicator
of solar activity closely associated with climate. Science, New Series,
Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991, pp. 698-700.
[41] G. C. Reid. Nature, 329, 142, 1987. In E. Friss-Christensen, and K.
Lassen. Length of solar cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely
associated with climate. Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991,
pp. 698-700.
[42] M.I. Hoffert, A.J. Callegari, and C.T. Hsieh. . J. Geophys. Res. 85,
1980, pp. 6667 In E. Friss-Christensen, and K. Lassen. Length of solar
cycle: an indicator of solar activity closely associated with climate.
Science, New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5032, 1991, pp. 698-700.
[43] R.A. Kerr. Climate change: Three degrees of consensus. Science, Vol.
305, No. 5686, 2004, pp. 932-934.
@article{"International Journal of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences:61362", author = "Eric Kojo Wu Aikins", title = "Evidence of Climate Change (Global Warming) and Temperature Increases in Arctic Areas", abstract = "This paper contributes to the debate on the proximate
causes of climate change. Also, it discusses the impact of the global
temperature increases since the beginning of the twentieth century
and the effectiveness of climate change models in isolating the
primary cause (anthropogenic influences or natural variability in
temperature) of the observed temperature increases that occurred
within this period. The paper argues that if climate scientist and
policymakers ignore the anthropogenic influence (greenhouse gases)
on global warming on the pretense of lack of agreement among
various climate models and their inability to account for all the
necessary factors of global warming at all levels the current efforts of
greenhouse emissions control and global warming as a whole could
be exacerbated.", keywords = "Anthropogenic Effects, Arctic, Climate Change,
Natural Variability.", volume = "6", number = "12", pages = "792-6", }
