Endogenous Fantasy – Based Serious Games: Intrinsic Motivation and Learning
Current technological advances pale in comparison to the changes in social behaviors and 'sense of place' that is being empowered since the Internet made it on the scene. Today-s students view the Internet as both a source of entertainment and an educational tool. The development of virtual environments is a conceptual framework that needs to be addressed by educators and it is important that they become familiar with who these virtual learners are and how they are motivated to learn. Massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs), if well designed, could become the vehicle of choice to deliver learning content. We suggest that these games, in order to accomplish these goals, must begin with well-established instructional design principles that are co-aligned with established principles of video game design. And have the opportunity to provide an instructional model of significant prescriptive power. The authors believe that game designers need to take advantage of the natural motivation player-learners have for playing games by developing them in such a way so as to promote, intrinsic motivation, content learning, transfer of knowledge, and naturalization.
[1] J. Meyrowitz. No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on
social behavior. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
[2] D. Levin, and S. Arafeh. The digital disconnect. (Available Online). Pew
Internet & American Life Project report, 2002. Available from
http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Schools_Internet_Report.pdf. (p.
iii)
[3] W. D. Gardner. "Kids use electronics devices at an earlier age."
Information Week, (2007). Accessed June 13, 2007, from:
http://www.informationweek.com/software/showArticle.jhtml?articleID
=199901319&cid=RSSfeed_TechWeb
[4] R. Watson. Interview. Game Invasion (2005). Accessed June 14, 2007
from:http://www.lockergnome.com/nexus/game/2005/02/09/interviewwith-
cyan-game-designer-richard-watson/
[5] C. Cavanaugh. Development and Management of Virtual Schools: Issues
and Trends. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing, 2004.
[6] A. Scheick. "Virtual vistas: High school students describing their
experiences in online courses." Ph.D. diss., University of Central
Florida, 2007.
[7] "The online game market heats up." (Available Online). The DFC
Report, 2004. Accessed: June 13, 2007, from
http://www.dfcint.com/game_article/june04article.html.
[8] G. R. Morrison, S. M. Ross, and J. E. Kemp. Designing Effective
Instruction (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
[9] J. P. Gee. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and
Literacy. New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2003.
[10] G. A. Gunter, R. F. Kenny, and E. H. Vick. "A case for a formal design
paradigm for serious games." The Journal of the International Digital
Media and Arts Association, 3 (2006): 93-105.
[11] R. Taylor, and G. A. Gunter. The K-12 Literacy Leadership Fieldbook.
New York: Sage Publications, 2006.
[12] J. M. Keller. "Motivational design of instruction." In Instructional
Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current Status,
edited by Charles. M. Reigeluth. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1983:
383-434.
[13] R. M. Gagne, and L. J. Briggs. Principles of Instructional Design. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974.
[14] J. M. Keller. "Using the ARCS process in CBI and distance education."
In Motivation in teaching and learning: New directions for teaching and
learning, M. Theall, Ed., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.
[15] J. V. Dempsey, and R. B. Johnson. "The development of an ARCS
gaming scale." Journal of Instructional Psychology 25 (1998): 215-222.
[16] G. A. Gunter, and R. F. Kenny, R. F. "Thinking out of the hexagon:
Digital media in the classroom." Paper presented at the annual
convention of Association for Educational Communications and
Technology, Orlando, Florida, November, 2005.
[17] R. F. Kenny, and G. A. Gunter. "Literacy through the arts." Paper
presented at the annual Conference of Association for Educational
Communications and Technology, Orlando, Florida, November, 2005.
[18] M. Prensky. "Digital game-based learning." Computers in
Entertainment, 1 (2003).
[19] B. S. Bloom. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The
Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co, Inc., 1956.
[20] L. Cermak,, and F. Craik. Levels of Processing in Human Memory.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979.
[21] F. Craik, F., and R. Lockhart. "Levels of processing: A framework for
memory research." Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 11
(1972): pp. 671-684.
[22] D. R. Krathwohl, B. S. Bloom, and B. M. Bertram. Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals.
Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.,
1974.
[23] Waal, B. D. "Motivations for video game play: a study of social, cultural
and physiological factors." Master-s thesis, School of Communication,
Simon Fraser University, 1987.
[24] Malone, T.W. & Lepper, M. R. (1987). "Making learning fun: A
taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning." In Aptitude, learning
and instruction: Cognitive and affective process analyses, R.E. Snow
and M.J. Farr, Eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1987: pp. 223-253.
[25] J. Murray. Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in
cyberspace. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
[26] J. Wirth. Interactive acting: Acting, improvisation, and interacting for
audience participatory theatre. Fall Creek, OR: Fall Creek Press, 1994.
[27] R. Garris, R., R. Ahlers, and J. E. Driskell. "Games, motivation, and
learning: A research and practice model." Simulation & Gaming, 33
(2004): pp. 441-467.
[28] L. P. Rieber. "Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning
environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and
games." Educational Technology Research & Development. 44 (1996):
pp. 43-58.
[29] R. J. Vallerand, M. S. Fortier, and F. Guay. "Self-determination and
persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of highschool
drop out." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72
(1997): pp. 1161-1176.
[30] K. Ricci, E. Salas, and J. A. Cannon-Bowers(1996). "Do computerbased
games facilitate knowledge acquisition and retention?" Military
Psychology, 8 (1996): pp. 295-307.
[31] J. Sweller, "Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional
design." Learning and Instruction, 4 (1994): pp. 295-312.
[32] M. Asgari, and D. Kaufman. (2004). "Relationships among computer
games, fantasy, and learning." International Conferences on Imagination
and Education 2004 2nd International Conference on Imagination in
Education. Vancouver, BC. Retrieved November 30, 2006, from
http://www.ierg.net/confs/2004/Proceedings/Asgari_Kaufman.pdf.
[33] B. Weiner. An Attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1986.
[34] P. Chandler, and J. Sweller. "Cognitive load theory and the format of
instruction." Cognition and Instruction, 8, (1991): pp. 293-332.
[35] K. E. Stanovich, R. F. West, and M. R. Harrison, M.R. (1995).
"Knowledge growth and maintenance across the life span: The role of
print exposure." Developmental Psychology, 31 (1995): pp. 811-826.
[36] D. Levine. Improving student achievement through mastery learning
programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
[37] T. W. Malone. "Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction."
Cognitive Science, 5 (1981): pp. 333-369.
[1] J. Meyrowitz. No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on
social behavior. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
[2] D. Levin, and S. Arafeh. The digital disconnect. (Available Online). Pew
Internet & American Life Project report, 2002. Available from
http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Schools_Internet_Report.pdf. (p.
iii)
[3] W. D. Gardner. "Kids use electronics devices at an earlier age."
Information Week, (2007). Accessed June 13, 2007, from:
http://www.informationweek.com/software/showArticle.jhtml?articleID
=199901319&cid=RSSfeed_TechWeb
[4] R. Watson. Interview. Game Invasion (2005). Accessed June 14, 2007
from:http://www.lockergnome.com/nexus/game/2005/02/09/interviewwith-
cyan-game-designer-richard-watson/
[5] C. Cavanaugh. Development and Management of Virtual Schools: Issues
and Trends. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing, 2004.
[6] A. Scheick. "Virtual vistas: High school students describing their
experiences in online courses." Ph.D. diss., University of Central
Florida, 2007.
[7] "The online game market heats up." (Available Online). The DFC
Report, 2004. Accessed: June 13, 2007, from
http://www.dfcint.com/game_article/june04article.html.
[8] G. R. Morrison, S. M. Ross, and J. E. Kemp. Designing Effective
Instruction (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
[9] J. P. Gee. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and
Literacy. New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2003.
[10] G. A. Gunter, R. F. Kenny, and E. H. Vick. "A case for a formal design
paradigm for serious games." The Journal of the International Digital
Media and Arts Association, 3 (2006): 93-105.
[11] R. Taylor, and G. A. Gunter. The K-12 Literacy Leadership Fieldbook.
New York: Sage Publications, 2006.
[12] J. M. Keller. "Motivational design of instruction." In Instructional
Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current Status,
edited by Charles. M. Reigeluth. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1983:
383-434.
[13] R. M. Gagne, and L. J. Briggs. Principles of Instructional Design. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974.
[14] J. M. Keller. "Using the ARCS process in CBI and distance education."
In Motivation in teaching and learning: New directions for teaching and
learning, M. Theall, Ed., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.
[15] J. V. Dempsey, and R. B. Johnson. "The development of an ARCS
gaming scale." Journal of Instructional Psychology 25 (1998): 215-222.
[16] G. A. Gunter, and R. F. Kenny, R. F. "Thinking out of the hexagon:
Digital media in the classroom." Paper presented at the annual
convention of Association for Educational Communications and
Technology, Orlando, Florida, November, 2005.
[17] R. F. Kenny, and G. A. Gunter. "Literacy through the arts." Paper
presented at the annual Conference of Association for Educational
Communications and Technology, Orlando, Florida, November, 2005.
[18] M. Prensky. "Digital game-based learning." Computers in
Entertainment, 1 (2003).
[19] B. S. Bloom. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The
Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co, Inc., 1956.
[20] L. Cermak,, and F. Craik. Levels of Processing in Human Memory.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979.
[21] F. Craik, F., and R. Lockhart. "Levels of processing: A framework for
memory research." Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 11
(1972): pp. 671-684.
[22] D. R. Krathwohl, B. S. Bloom, and B. M. Bertram. Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals.
Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.,
1974.
[23] Waal, B. D. "Motivations for video game play: a study of social, cultural
and physiological factors." Master-s thesis, School of Communication,
Simon Fraser University, 1987.
[24] Malone, T.W. & Lepper, M. R. (1987). "Making learning fun: A
taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning." In Aptitude, learning
and instruction: Cognitive and affective process analyses, R.E. Snow
and M.J. Farr, Eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1987: pp. 223-253.
[25] J. Murray. Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in
cyberspace. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
[26] J. Wirth. Interactive acting: Acting, improvisation, and interacting for
audience participatory theatre. Fall Creek, OR: Fall Creek Press, 1994.
[27] R. Garris, R., R. Ahlers, and J. E. Driskell. "Games, motivation, and
learning: A research and practice model." Simulation & Gaming, 33
(2004): pp. 441-467.
[28] L. P. Rieber. "Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning
environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and
games." Educational Technology Research & Development. 44 (1996):
pp. 43-58.
[29] R. J. Vallerand, M. S. Fortier, and F. Guay. "Self-determination and
persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of highschool
drop out." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72
(1997): pp. 1161-1176.
[30] K. Ricci, E. Salas, and J. A. Cannon-Bowers(1996). "Do computerbased
games facilitate knowledge acquisition and retention?" Military
Psychology, 8 (1996): pp. 295-307.
[31] J. Sweller, "Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional
design." Learning and Instruction, 4 (1994): pp. 295-312.
[32] M. Asgari, and D. Kaufman. (2004). "Relationships among computer
games, fantasy, and learning." International Conferences on Imagination
and Education 2004 2nd International Conference on Imagination in
Education. Vancouver, BC. Retrieved November 30, 2006, from
http://www.ierg.net/confs/2004/Proceedings/Asgari_Kaufman.pdf.
[33] B. Weiner. An Attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1986.
[34] P. Chandler, and J. Sweller. "Cognitive load theory and the format of
instruction." Cognition and Instruction, 8, (1991): pp. 293-332.
[35] K. E. Stanovich, R. F. West, and M. R. Harrison, M.R. (1995).
"Knowledge growth and maintenance across the life span: The role of
print exposure." Developmental Psychology, 31 (1995): pp. 811-826.
[36] D. Levine. Improving student achievement through mastery learning
programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
[37] T. W. Malone. "Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction."
Cognitive Science, 5 (1981): pp. 333-369.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:62522", author = "Robert F. Kenny and Glenda A. Gunter", title = "Endogenous Fantasy – Based Serious Games: Intrinsic Motivation and Learning", abstract = "Current technological advances pale in comparison to the changes in social behaviors and 'sense of place' that is being empowered since the Internet made it on the scene. Today-s students view the Internet as both a source of entertainment and an educational tool. The development of virtual environments is a conceptual framework that needs to be addressed by educators and it is important that they become familiar with who these virtual learners are and how they are motivated to learn. Massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs), if well designed, could become the vehicle of choice to deliver learning content. We suggest that these games, in order to accomplish these goals, must begin with well-established instructional design principles that are co-aligned with established principles of video game design. And have the opportunity to provide an instructional model of significant prescriptive power. The authors believe that game designers need to take advantage of the natural motivation player-learners have for playing games by developing them in such a way so as to promote, intrinsic motivation, content learning, transfer of knowledge, and naturalization.
", keywords = "serious games, endogenous fantasy, intrinsic
motivation, online learning.", volume = "1", number = "11", pages = "722-6", }
