Effects of Computer–Based Instructional Designs among Pupils of Different Music Intelligence Levels
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of computer–based instructional designs, namely modality and redundancy principles on the attitude and learning of music theory among primary pupils of different Music Intelligence levels. The lesson of music theory was developed in three different modes, audio and image (AI), text with image (TI) and audio with image and text (AIT). The independent variables were the three modes of courseware. The moderator variable was music intelligence. The dependent variables were the post test score. ANOVA was used to determine the significant differences of the pretest scores among the three groups. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) and Post hoc were carried out to examine the main effects as well as the interaction effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables. High music intelligence pupils performed significantly better than low music intelligence pupils in all the three treatment modes. The AI mode was found to help pupils with low music intelligence significantly more than the TI and AIT modes.
[1] Nosir, S. (1980). Music theory. Egypt: Dar Alsabeel.
[2] Chew, D. (2005). Computer-assisted instruction for music theory
education: Rhythm in music. PhD Thesis (Unpublished), California state
university.
[3] Aldalalah, O. M. (2003). Educational software effects in learning
musical concepts for class rooms teachers, students and their attitudes
toward them. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University,
Jordan.
[4] Smith, K. H. (2009). The effect of computer-assisted instruction and
field independence on the development of rhythm sight-reading skills of
middle school instrumental students. International Journal of Music
Education, 27 (1), 59-68.
[5] Wilson, T. C. (2005). An implementation of a drill and practice system
to assist in the teaching of basic music theory. Master Thesis
(Unpublished), Brigham Young University.
[6] Mcvay, V. (2004). The effectiveness of color-coding for learning music
theory rudiments, aural skills, and keyboard skills in persons aged in 60
and older. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University of Kentucky.
[7] Guderian, L. (2008). Effects of applied music composition and
improvisation assignments on sight-reading ability, learning in music
theory and quality in soprano recorder playing. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Northwestern University.
[8] Yagmor, K. & Aldalalah, O. (2007). How teachers grade students
acquire basic skills necessary to teach songs of the three first and
attitudes toward it. Valley South University Journal, 21(2), 17-32.
[9] Yagmor, K. (2007). Constructing a musical training program based on
cognitive and music skills components for music students at Jordanian
universities, and examining the importance of its applicability. Ph.D
Thesis (Unpublished), Amman Arab University for graduate Studies,
Jordan.
[10] Alwan, R. A. (2008). The difficulties facing music teacher in Jordan.
Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[11] Ramzy, S. & Alabdaly, B. (2005a). A strategy for teaching ear training
courses for beginners through the use of computer programs. Journal of
the Faculty of Musical Education, Helwan University, 12(3)23-36.
[12] Obidat, N. (2008). Fields of using musical computer programs in
teaching music. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University,
Jordan.
[13] Obidat, R. (2003). The effects of using computers in teaching music
upon tenth graders achievement. Master Thesis (Unpublished),
Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[14] Dyabat, B. (2007). The effect of a computerized musical program in the
achievement of Tafila Technical University students for the musical
principles and their attitudes towards the program. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Jordanian University.
[15] Clark, J. M. & Mayer, R. (2008). E-learning and the science in
instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
[16] Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. The
Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd, Camberwell.
[17] Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York, Cambridge
university press.
[18] Seufert, T., Schu, M. & Nken, R. (2009). Memory characteristics and
modality in multimedia learning: An aptitude treatment interaction study.
Learning and Instruction, 19(1) 28-42.
[19] Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology.
American Psychologist, (12), 671- 684.
[20] Cronbach L. J. & Snow, R. E. (1997). Aptitudes and instructional
methods: A handbook for research on interactions, Irvington, New
York.
[21] Swanson, J. H. (1990). The effectiveness of tutorial strategies: An
empirical evaluation. Annual Conference of the American Educational
Research Association, Boston, MA.
[22] Shute, V. J. & Towle, B. (2003). Adaptive E-learning. Educational
Psychologist, 38(2), 105-114.
[23] Fong, S. F. (2000). The effect of animation on learning of procedural
knowledge of meiosis among students with different psychological
profiles. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University Sains Malaysia.
Penang.
[24] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (1999a). Cognitive principles of multimedia
learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 91(2), 358-368.
[25] Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (1998a). A split-attention effect in
multimedia learning: evidence for dual processing system in working
memory. Journal of educational psychology, 90(2) 312- 320.
[26] Alherish, A., Aldalalah, O. & Alababneh, Z. (2005). Effects of the
differences of the symbolic system in instructional software on third
grade students- achievement in sciences Journal of Education
Psychological Sciences, 6 (4), 13- 34.
[27] Mayer, R. E. (2010). Merlin c. Wittrock-s enduring contributions to the
science of learning. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 46-50.
[28] Harskamp, G. E., Mayer R. E. & Suhre, C. (2007). Does the modality
principle for multimedia learning apply to science classrooms?. Learning
and Instruction, 17 (5), 465-477.
[29] Aldalalah, O. & Fong, S. F. (2008). Effects of modality principles among
Jordanian students. 2nd International Malaysian Educational
Technology Convention, 5-7 November 2008, Kuantan, Malaysia.
Malaysia: Malaysian Educational Technology Association.
[30] Wouters, P., Paas, F., Jeroen, J. & Merrienboer, V. (2009).
Observational learning from animated models: Effects of modality and
reflection on transfer. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 1-
8.
[31] Moreno, R. (2006). Does the modality principle hold for different
media? A test of the method affects learning hypothesis. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 22(3), 149-158.
[32] Sweller, J. (2005). The redundancy principle in multimedia learning. In
R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[33] Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format
of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293-332.
[34] Sweller, J. & Chandler. (1994). Why some materials are difficult to
learn, Cognition and Instruction, 12(3), 185-233.
[35] Sweller, J., Paas, F. & Renkl, A. (2003). Cognitive load theory and
instructional design: recent developments. Educational Psychologist,38
(1), 1-4
[36] Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (2004). When redundant onscreen
text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with
learning. Human Factors, 46 (3), 567-581.
[37] Sweller, J. (2006). Discussion of emerging topics in cognitive load
research: Using learner and information characteristics in the design of
powerful learning environments. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2),
353-357.
[38] Diao, Y. & Sweller, J. (2007). Redundancy in foreign language reading
comprehension instruction: Concurrent written and spoken
presentations. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), 78-88.
[39] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (2002b). Verbal redundancy in multimedia
learning: when reading helps listening, Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94 (1), 156-163.
[40] Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1999). Managing split-attention
and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 13(4), 351-357.
[41] Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E.
Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31 - 48).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
[42] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia
learning: The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of
multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology,
92(1), 117-125.
[43] Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (1997). A cognitive theory of multimedia
learning: Implications for design principles: Wiley, New York.
[44] Clark, R. C. & Mayer, R. E. (2003a). E-Learning and the science of
instruction: Pfeiffer San Francisco.
[45] Muthukumar S. L. (2005). Creating interactive multimedia-based
educational courseware: cognition in learning. Springer-Verlag 7(1), 46-
50.
[46] Sorden S. D. (2005). A cognitive approach to instructional design for
multimedia learning. Information Science Journal, 8(1), 263-279.
[47] Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
[48] Gardner, H. (2000). Project Ero: Nelson Goodman-s legacy in arts
education. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 58(3), 245-249.
[49] Gardner, H. (2004). Audiences for the theory of multiple intelligence.
Teacher College Record. 106(1), 212-220. Columbia University.
[50] Al-Ahdal, A. (2009). The efficiency of activities and approaches based
on the multi-intelligence theory in improving the achievement of
Geography and maintaining the learning effect among first year
secondary students in Jeddah Province. Journal of Science Education
and Human, 1 (1), 191-242.
[51] Gardner, H. (2003). Multiple intelligences after twenty years. Paper
presented at the American Educational Research Association, Chicago,
Illinois.
[52] Afanan, I. & Akzndar, N. (2004). Multi intelligence levels among basic
education students stage in Gaza and their relationship to achievement in
mathematics and orientation towards. Humanists Studies Journal, 12 (2),
323-366.
[53] Dobbs, V. R. (2001). The relationship between implementation of the
multiple intelligences theory in the curriculum and student academic
achievement at a seventh - grade at-risk alternative school. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[54] Lamar, H. B. (1989). An examination of congruency of musical aptitude
scores and mathematics and reading achievement scores of elementary
children. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University of Southern
Mississippi.
[55] Johnson, D. A. (2000). The development of music aptitude and effects
on scholastic achievement of 8 to 12 year olds. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Kentucky: University of Louisville.
[56] Luiz, C. S. (2007). The learning of music as a means to improve
mathematical skills. International Symposium on Performance Science
Published by the AECAll rights reserved.
[57] Gouzouasis, P., Guhn, M. & Kishor, N. (2007). The name assigned to
the document by the author. This field may also contain sub-titles, series
names, and report numbers. the predictive relationship between
achievement and participation in music and achievement in core grade
12 academic subjects. Music Education Research, 9 (1), 81-92.
[58] Khalil, A. (2005). Science of creativity (online). (Accessed 3 April
2009). Available from the World Wide Web:
http://www.adabfalasteeni.org/artical.php.
[59] Hussein, Z. M. (2008). Pattern of Thinking Music Students. PhD Thesis
(Unpublished), Gulf University.
[60] Christopher, J. M. & Memmott, J. E. (2006). Examination of
relationships between participation in school music programs of
differing quality and standardized test results. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 54(4), 293-307.
[61] Babo, D. G. (2004). The relationship between instrumental music
participation and standardized assessment achievement of middle school
students. Research Studies in Music Education, 22 (1), 14-27.
[62] Gur, C. (2009). Is there any positive effect of classical music on
cognitive content of drawings of six year-old children in Turkey?.
European Journal of Scientific Research, 36(2), 251-259.
[63] Omari, M., Alhersh, A., Aldalalah, O. & Ababneh, Z. (2010) Effect drill
and practice pattern in mathematics among first-grade students,
compared with music anthems, and traditional way. Journal of Science
Education and Human (Umm al-Qura University).21 (1). (in pres)
[64] Chan, W. D. (2007). Musical aptitude and multiple intelligences among
Chinese gifted students in Hong Kong: Do self-perceptions predict
abilities?. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(6), 1604-1615.
[65] Gay, L. R. & Airasian, P. W. (2003). Educational research:
Competencies for analysis and application (7th ed): Prentice Hall.
[66] Gay, L. R. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies
for analysis and application (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
[67] Al-Drais, S. (2008). Multiple intelligences assist primary students who
have academic difficulties. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Kuwait
University.
[1] Nosir, S. (1980). Music theory. Egypt: Dar Alsabeel.
[2] Chew, D. (2005). Computer-assisted instruction for music theory
education: Rhythm in music. PhD Thesis (Unpublished), California state
university.
[3] Aldalalah, O. M. (2003). Educational software effects in learning
musical concepts for class rooms teachers, students and their attitudes
toward them. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University,
Jordan.
[4] Smith, K. H. (2009). The effect of computer-assisted instruction and
field independence on the development of rhythm sight-reading skills of
middle school instrumental students. International Journal of Music
Education, 27 (1), 59-68.
[5] Wilson, T. C. (2005). An implementation of a drill and practice system
to assist in the teaching of basic music theory. Master Thesis
(Unpublished), Brigham Young University.
[6] Mcvay, V. (2004). The effectiveness of color-coding for learning music
theory rudiments, aural skills, and keyboard skills in persons aged in 60
and older. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University of Kentucky.
[7] Guderian, L. (2008). Effects of applied music composition and
improvisation assignments on sight-reading ability, learning in music
theory and quality in soprano recorder playing. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Northwestern University.
[8] Yagmor, K. & Aldalalah, O. (2007). How teachers grade students
acquire basic skills necessary to teach songs of the three first and
attitudes toward it. Valley South University Journal, 21(2), 17-32.
[9] Yagmor, K. (2007). Constructing a musical training program based on
cognitive and music skills components for music students at Jordanian
universities, and examining the importance of its applicability. Ph.D
Thesis (Unpublished), Amman Arab University for graduate Studies,
Jordan.
[10] Alwan, R. A. (2008). The difficulties facing music teacher in Jordan.
Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[11] Ramzy, S. & Alabdaly, B. (2005a). A strategy for teaching ear training
courses for beginners through the use of computer programs. Journal of
the Faculty of Musical Education, Helwan University, 12(3)23-36.
[12] Obidat, N. (2008). Fields of using musical computer programs in
teaching music. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Yarmouk University,
Jordan.
[13] Obidat, R. (2003). The effects of using computers in teaching music
upon tenth graders achievement. Master Thesis (Unpublished),
Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[14] Dyabat, B. (2007). The effect of a computerized musical program in the
achievement of Tafila Technical University students for the musical
principles and their attitudes towards the program. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Jordanian University.
[15] Clark, J. M. & Mayer, R. (2008). E-learning and the science in
instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
[16] Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. The
Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd, Camberwell.
[17] Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York, Cambridge
university press.
[18] Seufert, T., Schu, M. & Nken, R. (2009). Memory characteristics and
modality in multimedia learning: An aptitude treatment interaction study.
Learning and Instruction, 19(1) 28-42.
[19] Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology.
American Psychologist, (12), 671- 684.
[20] Cronbach L. J. & Snow, R. E. (1997). Aptitudes and instructional
methods: A handbook for research on interactions, Irvington, New
York.
[21] Swanson, J. H. (1990). The effectiveness of tutorial strategies: An
empirical evaluation. Annual Conference of the American Educational
Research Association, Boston, MA.
[22] Shute, V. J. & Towle, B. (2003). Adaptive E-learning. Educational
Psychologist, 38(2), 105-114.
[23] Fong, S. F. (2000). The effect of animation on learning of procedural
knowledge of meiosis among students with different psychological
profiles. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University Sains Malaysia.
Penang.
[24] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (1999a). Cognitive principles of multimedia
learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 91(2), 358-368.
[25] Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (1998a). A split-attention effect in
multimedia learning: evidence for dual processing system in working
memory. Journal of educational psychology, 90(2) 312- 320.
[26] Alherish, A., Aldalalah, O. & Alababneh, Z. (2005). Effects of the
differences of the symbolic system in instructional software on third
grade students- achievement in sciences Journal of Education
Psychological Sciences, 6 (4), 13- 34.
[27] Mayer, R. E. (2010). Merlin c. Wittrock-s enduring contributions to the
science of learning. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 46-50.
[28] Harskamp, G. E., Mayer R. E. & Suhre, C. (2007). Does the modality
principle for multimedia learning apply to science classrooms?. Learning
and Instruction, 17 (5), 465-477.
[29] Aldalalah, O. & Fong, S. F. (2008). Effects of modality principles among
Jordanian students. 2nd International Malaysian Educational
Technology Convention, 5-7 November 2008, Kuantan, Malaysia.
Malaysia: Malaysian Educational Technology Association.
[30] Wouters, P., Paas, F., Jeroen, J. & Merrienboer, V. (2009).
Observational learning from animated models: Effects of modality and
reflection on transfer. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 1-
8.
[31] Moreno, R. (2006). Does the modality principle hold for different
media? A test of the method affects learning hypothesis. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 22(3), 149-158.
[32] Sweller, J. (2005). The redundancy principle in multimedia learning. In
R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[33] Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format
of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293-332.
[34] Sweller, J. & Chandler. (1994). Why some materials are difficult to
learn, Cognition and Instruction, 12(3), 185-233.
[35] Sweller, J., Paas, F. & Renkl, A. (2003). Cognitive load theory and
instructional design: recent developments. Educational Psychologist,38
(1), 1-4
[36] Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (2004). When redundant onscreen
text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with
learning. Human Factors, 46 (3), 567-581.
[37] Sweller, J. (2006). Discussion of emerging topics in cognitive load
research: Using learner and information characteristics in the design of
powerful learning environments. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2),
353-357.
[38] Diao, Y. & Sweller, J. (2007). Redundancy in foreign language reading
comprehension instruction: Concurrent written and spoken
presentations. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), 78-88.
[39] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (2002b). Verbal redundancy in multimedia
learning: when reading helps listening, Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94 (1), 156-163.
[40] Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1999). Managing split-attention
and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 13(4), 351-357.
[41] Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E.
Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31 - 48).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
[42] Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia
learning: The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of
multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology,
92(1), 117-125.
[43] Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (1997). A cognitive theory of multimedia
learning: Implications for design principles: Wiley, New York.
[44] Clark, R. C. & Mayer, R. E. (2003a). E-Learning and the science of
instruction: Pfeiffer San Francisco.
[45] Muthukumar S. L. (2005). Creating interactive multimedia-based
educational courseware: cognition in learning. Springer-Verlag 7(1), 46-
50.
[46] Sorden S. D. (2005). A cognitive approach to instructional design for
multimedia learning. Information Science Journal, 8(1), 263-279.
[47] Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
[48] Gardner, H. (2000). Project Ero: Nelson Goodman-s legacy in arts
education. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 58(3), 245-249.
[49] Gardner, H. (2004). Audiences for the theory of multiple intelligence.
Teacher College Record. 106(1), 212-220. Columbia University.
[50] Al-Ahdal, A. (2009). The efficiency of activities and approaches based
on the multi-intelligence theory in improving the achievement of
Geography and maintaining the learning effect among first year
secondary students in Jeddah Province. Journal of Science Education
and Human, 1 (1), 191-242.
[51] Gardner, H. (2003). Multiple intelligences after twenty years. Paper
presented at the American Educational Research Association, Chicago,
Illinois.
[52] Afanan, I. & Akzndar, N. (2004). Multi intelligence levels among basic
education students stage in Gaza and their relationship to achievement in
mathematics and orientation towards. Humanists Studies Journal, 12 (2),
323-366.
[53] Dobbs, V. R. (2001). The relationship between implementation of the
multiple intelligences theory in the curriculum and student academic
achievement at a seventh - grade at-risk alternative school. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Yarmouk University, Jordan.
[54] Lamar, H. B. (1989). An examination of congruency of musical aptitude
scores and mathematics and reading achievement scores of elementary
children. Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished), University of Southern
Mississippi.
[55] Johnson, D. A. (2000). The development of music aptitude and effects
on scholastic achievement of 8 to 12 year olds. Ph.D Thesis
(Unpublished), Kentucky: University of Louisville.
[56] Luiz, C. S. (2007). The learning of music as a means to improve
mathematical skills. International Symposium on Performance Science
Published by the AECAll rights reserved.
[57] Gouzouasis, P., Guhn, M. & Kishor, N. (2007). The name assigned to
the document by the author. This field may also contain sub-titles, series
names, and report numbers. the predictive relationship between
achievement and participation in music and achievement in core grade
12 academic subjects. Music Education Research, 9 (1), 81-92.
[58] Khalil, A. (2005). Science of creativity (online). (Accessed 3 April
2009). Available from the World Wide Web:
http://www.adabfalasteeni.org/artical.php.
[59] Hussein, Z. M. (2008). Pattern of Thinking Music Students. PhD Thesis
(Unpublished), Gulf University.
[60] Christopher, J. M. & Memmott, J. E. (2006). Examination of
relationships between participation in school music programs of
differing quality and standardized test results. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 54(4), 293-307.
[61] Babo, D. G. (2004). The relationship between instrumental music
participation and standardized assessment achievement of middle school
students. Research Studies in Music Education, 22 (1), 14-27.
[62] Gur, C. (2009). Is there any positive effect of classical music on
cognitive content of drawings of six year-old children in Turkey?.
European Journal of Scientific Research, 36(2), 251-259.
[63] Omari, M., Alhersh, A., Aldalalah, O. & Ababneh, Z. (2010) Effect drill
and practice pattern in mathematics among first-grade students,
compared with music anthems, and traditional way. Journal of Science
Education and Human (Umm al-Qura University).21 (1). (in pres)
[64] Chan, W. D. (2007). Musical aptitude and multiple intelligences among
Chinese gifted students in Hong Kong: Do self-perceptions predict
abilities?. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(6), 1604-1615.
[65] Gay, L. R. & Airasian, P. W. (2003). Educational research:
Competencies for analysis and application (7th ed): Prentice Hall.
[66] Gay, L. R. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies
for analysis and application (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
[67] Al-Drais, S. (2008). Multiple intelligences assist primary students who
have academic difficulties. Master Thesis (Unpublished), Kuwait
University.
@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:62913", author = "Aldalalah and M. Osamah and Soon Fook Fong", title = "Effects of Computer–Based Instructional Designs among Pupils of Different Music Intelligence Levels", abstract = "The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of computer–based instructional designs, namely modality and redundancy principles on the attitude and learning of music theory among primary pupils of different Music Intelligence levels. The lesson of music theory was developed in three different modes, audio and image (AI), text with image (TI) and audio with image and text (AIT). The independent variables were the three modes of courseware. The moderator variable was music intelligence. The dependent variables were the post test score. ANOVA was used to determine the significant differences of the pretest scores among the three groups. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) and Post hoc were carried out to examine the main effects as well as the interaction effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables. High music intelligence pupils performed significantly better than low music intelligence pupils in all the three treatment modes. The AI mode was found to help pupils with low music intelligence significantly more than the TI and AIT modes.
", keywords = "Modality, Redundancy, Music theory, Cognitivetheory of multimedia learning, Cognitive load theory, Musicintelligence.", volume = "4", number = "3", pages = "301-9", }
