Daily Experiences of Racism and Forgiving Historical Offenses: An African American Experience
This study explored the correlates of forgiving
historical racial offenses and the relationship between daily
experiences of racism and forgiving historical racial offenses. 147
African Americans participated to the study. Results indicated that
guilt attribution, distrust, need of reparations, religion, and perception
of apology relate to forgiving past racial offenses. In addition the
more individuals experience racism related events, the less likely
they forgive the past mistreatments of African Americans.
[1] D. R. Atkinson, and G. Hackett, Counseling Diverse Populations,
2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[2] D. R. Atkinson, G. Morten, and D. W. Sue, Counseling American
Minorities. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark, 1993.
[3] J. M. Jones, Prejudice and Racism, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1997.
[4] D. W. Sue, and W. Sue, Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory
and Practice, 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 2003.
[5] R. F. Morgan, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and
Romance. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001.
[6] J. H. Franklin and A. A. Moss, From Slavery to Freedom. A History
of African Americans, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[7] A. J. Franklin, and N. Boyd-Franklin, "Invisibility syndrome: A
clinical model of the effects of racism on African-American males".
American Journal of Orthpsychiatry, vol, 70, pp. 33-41, 2000.
[8] L. E. Davis, M. J. Strube, and L. C. Cheng, "Too many blacks, too
many whites: Is there a racial balance?" Basic and Applied Social
Psychology, vol, 17, pp. 119-135, 1995.
[9] J. F. Dovidio, K. Kawakami, and S. L. Gaertner, "Implicit and
explicit prejudice and interracial interaction". Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol, 82, pp. 62-68, 2002.
[10] M. R. Jackman and C. Crane, "Some of my best friends are black
...: Inter-racial friendship and whites- racial attitudes". Public
Opinion Quarterly, vol. 50, pp. 459-486, 1986.
[11] D. S. Massey, and N. A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation
and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. 1993.
[12] J. F. Dovidio, and S. L Gaertner,. "On the nature of contemporary
prejudice: the cause, consequences and challenges of aversive
racism". In Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response J.
L. Eberhardt and S. T. Fiske, Ed. CA: Sage Publications Inc., 1998,
pp. 3-33.
[13] D. L. Frey, and S. L. Gaertner, "Helping and the avoidance of
inappropriate interracial behavior: A strategy that perpetuates a
nonprejudiced self-image". Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol. 50, pp. 1083-1090, 1986.
[14] I. Katz Stigma: A Social Psychological Analysis. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1981.
[15] I. Katz, S. Cohen, and D. Glass, "Some determinants of cross-racial
helping behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
vol. 32, pp. 964-970, 1975.
[16] D. O. Sears, "Racism and politics in the United States". In
Confronting Racism: The Problem and The Response J. L.
Eberhardt and S. T. Fiske, Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998, pp.
76-100.
[17] J. B. McConahay, "Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern
racism scale". In Prejudice, discrimination, and racism J. F. Davido
and S. L. Gaertner, Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986,
pp. 91-125.
[18] W. C, Jr. Farrell, and C. K. Jones, "Recent racial incidents in higher
education: A preliminary perspective," The Urban Review, Vol. 20,
pp. 211-226, 1988.
[19] H, Schuman, E. Singer, R, Donovan, and C, Sellitz, "Discriminatory
Behavior in New York Restaurants: 1950 and 1981," Social
Indicators Research, vol. 13, pp. 69-83, 1983.
[20] J. R. Feagin, "The continuing significance of race: Antiblack
discrimination in public places," American Sociological Review,
vol. 56, pp. 101-116, 1991.
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housing discrimination. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995.
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bargaining for a new car," American Economic Review, vol. 85, pp.
304-321, 1991.
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developing authenticity," Journal of African American Men, vol. 1,
pp. 5-28, 1995.
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1982.
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Discrimination, New York: Guilford Press, 1995.
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Journal of Black Psychology, vol. 22, pp. 144-168, 1996.
[29] Z. Quian, "Who intermarries? Education, nativity, region, and
interracial marriage 1980 and 1990," Journal of Comparative
Family Studies, vol. 30, pp. 579-597, 1999.
[30] R. C. Johnson, and G. M, "Ogasawara Within and across group
dating in Hawaii," Social Biology, vol. 35, pp. 103-109, 1984.
[31] J. R. Davidson, "Theories about black and white interracial
marriage: A clinical perspective," Journal of Multicultural
Counseling and Development, Vol. 20, pp. 507-517, 1992.
[32] J. R. Davidson, and L. J. Schneider, "Acceptance of black and white
interracial marriage," The Journal of Intergroup Relations, vol. 19,
pp. 150- 157, 1992.
[33] V. O. Dunleavy, "Examining interracial marriage attitudes as value
expressive attitudes," The Howard Journal of Communications, vol.
15, pp. 21-38, 2004.
[34] K. R. Ihlanfeldt, and B. Scafidi, "Whites' neighbourhood racial
preferences and neighbourhood racial composition in the United
States: evidence from the multi-city study of urban inequality,"
Housing Studies, vol. 19, pp. 325 - 359, 2004.
[35] N. H. Anderson, A Functional Theory of Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1996.
[36] S. C. Boon, and L. M. Sulsky, "Attributions of blame and
forgiveness in romantic relationships: A policy-capturing study,"
Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, vol. 12, pp. 19-44,
1997.
[37] M. E. McCullough, "Forgiveness: Who does it and how do they do
it?" Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 10, pp. 194-
197 2001.
[38] M. E. McCullough, E. L. Worthington and K. C. Rachal,
"Interpersonal forgiveness in close relationships," Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 73, pp. 321-336, 1997.
[39] S. R. Freedman, "Forgiveness and reconciliation: The importance of
understanding how they differ," Counseling and Values, vol. 42,
pp. 200-216, 1998.
[40] R. D. Enright, "Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships:
Correction to McCullough et al. (1997)," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, vol, 77, pp. 218, 1999.
[41] R. D. Enright, and R. P. Fitzgibbons, Helping Clients Forgive: An
Empirical Guide for Resolving Anger and Restoring Hope.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000.
[42] T. D. Hargrave, and J. N. Sells, "The development of a forgiveness
scale". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, vol. 23, pp. 41-64
1997.
[43] M. E. McCullough, K. C. Rachal, S. J. Sandage, E. L. Worthington,
Jr., S.W. Brown and T. L. Hight, "Interpersonal forgiving in close
relationships II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement," Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 73, pp. 321-336, 1998.
[44] L. Y. Thompson, and C. R. Synder, "Measuring forgiveness," In
Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and
Measures S. J. Lopez and C. R. Snyder, Ed. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 2003, pp. 301-312.
[45] E. D. Scobie, and G. E. W. Scobie, "Damaging events: The
perceived need for forgiveness," Journal for the Theory of Social
Behavior, vol. 28, pp. 373-401, 1998.
[46] R. C. Roberts, "Forgivingness," American Philosophical Quarterly,
vol. 32, pp. 289-306, 1995.
[47] W. P. Hammond, K, H. Banks, and J. S. Mattis, "Masculinity
ideology and forgiveness of racial discrimination among African
American men: Direct and interactive relationships," Sex Roles, vol.
55, pp. 679-692, 2006.
[48] F. McLernon, E. Cairns, and M. Hewstone, "Views on Forgiveness
in Northern Ireland," Peace Review, vol. 14, pp. 285-290, 2002.
[49] M. Hewstone, E. Cairns, A. Voci, F. McLernon, U. Niens and M.
Noor, "Intergroup forgiveness and guilt in Northern Ireland: Social
psychological dimension of the ÔÇÿThe Troubles,-" In Collective guilt:
International Perspectives, N. R. Branscombe and B. Doosje. Ed,
New York: Cambridge University Press. 2004, pp. 193-215.
[50] P.E. Digeser, Political Forgiveness. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2001.
[51] M. J. A. Wohl and N. R Branscombe, "Forgiveness and collective
guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of
social category inclusiveness," Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol. 88, pp. 288-303, 2005.
[52] F. Azar, E. Mullet and G. Vinsonneau, "The propensity to forgive:
Findings from Lebanon," Journal of Peace Research, vol, 36, pp.
169-181, 1999.
[53] D. Shriver, An ethic for enemies: Forgiveness in politics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1995.
[54] F, McLernon, E, Cairns, M, Hewstone and R. Smith, "The
development of intergroup forgiveness in Northern Ireland,"
Journal of Social Issues, vol, 60, pp. 587-601, 2004.
[55] S. P. Harrell, "A multidimensional conceptualization of racismrelated
stress: Implications or the well-being of people of color,"
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol, 70, pp. 42-57, 2000.
[56] S. P. Harrell, "The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES):
Self-administration version," unpublished.
[57] R. D. Enright, and D. L. Eastin, "Interpersonal forgiveness within
the helping professions: An attempt to resolve differences of
opinion," Counseling and Values, vol. 36, pp. 84-103, 1992.
[58] M. Girard and E. Mullet, "Forgiveness: An exploratory factor
analysis and relationship to religious variables," Review of
Religious Research, vol, 34, pp. 333-347, 1997.
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the context of adolescent friendship conflict in Korea," Journal of
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[1] D. R. Atkinson, and G. Hackett, Counseling Diverse Populations,
2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[2] D. R. Atkinson, G. Morten, and D. W. Sue, Counseling American
Minorities. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark, 1993.
[3] J. M. Jones, Prejudice and Racism, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1997.
[4] D. W. Sue, and W. Sue, Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory
and Practice, 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 2003.
[5] R. F. Morgan, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and
Romance. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001.
[6] J. H. Franklin and A. A. Moss, From Slavery to Freedom. A History
of African Americans, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[7] A. J. Franklin, and N. Boyd-Franklin, "Invisibility syndrome: A
clinical model of the effects of racism on African-American males".
American Journal of Orthpsychiatry, vol, 70, pp. 33-41, 2000.
[8] L. E. Davis, M. J. Strube, and L. C. Cheng, "Too many blacks, too
many whites: Is there a racial balance?" Basic and Applied Social
Psychology, vol, 17, pp. 119-135, 1995.
[9] J. F. Dovidio, K. Kawakami, and S. L. Gaertner, "Implicit and
explicit prejudice and interracial interaction". Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol, 82, pp. 62-68, 2002.
[10] M. R. Jackman and C. Crane, "Some of my best friends are black
...: Inter-racial friendship and whites- racial attitudes". Public
Opinion Quarterly, vol. 50, pp. 459-486, 1986.
[11] D. S. Massey, and N. A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation
and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. 1993.
[12] J. F. Dovidio, and S. L Gaertner,. "On the nature of contemporary
prejudice: the cause, consequences and challenges of aversive
racism". In Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response J.
L. Eberhardt and S. T. Fiske, Ed. CA: Sage Publications Inc., 1998,
pp. 3-33.
[13] D. L. Frey, and S. L. Gaertner, "Helping and the avoidance of
inappropriate interracial behavior: A strategy that perpetuates a
nonprejudiced self-image". Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol. 50, pp. 1083-1090, 1986.
[14] I. Katz Stigma: A Social Psychological Analysis. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1981.
[15] I. Katz, S. Cohen, and D. Glass, "Some determinants of cross-racial
helping behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
vol. 32, pp. 964-970, 1975.
[16] D. O. Sears, "Racism and politics in the United States". In
Confronting Racism: The Problem and The Response J. L.
Eberhardt and S. T. Fiske, Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998, pp.
76-100.
[17] J. B. McConahay, "Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern
racism scale". In Prejudice, discrimination, and racism J. F. Davido
and S. L. Gaertner, Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986,
pp. 91-125.
[18] W. C, Jr. Farrell, and C. K. Jones, "Recent racial incidents in higher
education: A preliminary perspective," The Urban Review, Vol. 20,
pp. 211-226, 1988.
[19] H, Schuman, E. Singer, R, Donovan, and C, Sellitz, "Discriminatory
Behavior in New York Restaurants: 1950 and 1981," Social
Indicators Research, vol. 13, pp. 69-83, 1983.
[20] J. R. Feagin, "The continuing significance of race: Antiblack
discrimination in public places," American Sociological Review,
vol. 56, pp. 101-116, 1991.
[21] J. Yinger, Closed doors, opportunities lost: The continuing costs of
housing discrimination. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995.
[22] I. Ayres, "Fair driving: Gender and race discrimination in
bargaining for a new car," American Economic Review, vol. 85, pp.
304-321, 1991.
[23] J. Kirschenman, and K. M. Neckerman, "We-d love to hire them,
but...: The meaning of race for employers," In The Urban
Underclass C. Jencks and P. Petersen, Ed. Washington, DC:
Brookings Institute, 1991, pp. 203-232.
[24] J. Patton, "Education of African American males: Frameworks for
developing authenticity," Journal of African American Men, vol. 1,
pp. 5-28, 1995.
[25] R. Staples, Black Masculinity. San Francisco: Black Scholar Press,
1982.
[26] F. Harrison, "Racial and gender inequalities in health and health
care," Medical Anthropology Quarterly, vol. 8, pp. 90-95, 1994.
[27] B. Lott, and D. Maluso, The Social Psychology of Interpersonal
Discrimination, New York: Guilford Press, 1995.
[28] H. Landrine, and E. A. Klonoff "The schedule of racist events,"
Journal of Black Psychology, vol. 22, pp. 144-168, 1996.
[29] Z. Quian, "Who intermarries? Education, nativity, region, and
interracial marriage 1980 and 1990," Journal of Comparative
Family Studies, vol. 30, pp. 579-597, 1999.
[30] R. C. Johnson, and G. M, "Ogasawara Within and across group
dating in Hawaii," Social Biology, vol. 35, pp. 103-109, 1984.
[31] J. R. Davidson, "Theories about black and white interracial
marriage: A clinical perspective," Journal of Multicultural
Counseling and Development, Vol. 20, pp. 507-517, 1992.
[32] J. R. Davidson, and L. J. Schneider, "Acceptance of black and white
interracial marriage," The Journal of Intergroup Relations, vol. 19,
pp. 150- 157, 1992.
[33] V. O. Dunleavy, "Examining interracial marriage attitudes as value
expressive attitudes," The Howard Journal of Communications, vol.
15, pp. 21-38, 2004.
[34] K. R. Ihlanfeldt, and B. Scafidi, "Whites' neighbourhood racial
preferences and neighbourhood racial composition in the United
States: evidence from the multi-city study of urban inequality,"
Housing Studies, vol. 19, pp. 325 - 359, 2004.
[35] N. H. Anderson, A Functional Theory of Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1996.
[36] S. C. Boon, and L. M. Sulsky, "Attributions of blame and
forgiveness in romantic relationships: A policy-capturing study,"
Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, vol. 12, pp. 19-44,
1997.
[37] M. E. McCullough, "Forgiveness: Who does it and how do they do
it?" Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 10, pp. 194-
197 2001.
[38] M. E. McCullough, E. L. Worthington and K. C. Rachal,
"Interpersonal forgiveness in close relationships," Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 73, pp. 321-336, 1997.
[39] S. R. Freedman, "Forgiveness and reconciliation: The importance of
understanding how they differ," Counseling and Values, vol. 42,
pp. 200-216, 1998.
[40] R. D. Enright, "Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships:
Correction to McCullough et al. (1997)," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, vol, 77, pp. 218, 1999.
[41] R. D. Enright, and R. P. Fitzgibbons, Helping Clients Forgive: An
Empirical Guide for Resolving Anger and Restoring Hope.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000.
[42] T. D. Hargrave, and J. N. Sells, "The development of a forgiveness
scale". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, vol. 23, pp. 41-64
1997.
[43] M. E. McCullough, K. C. Rachal, S. J. Sandage, E. L. Worthington,
Jr., S.W. Brown and T. L. Hight, "Interpersonal forgiving in close
relationships II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement," Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 73, pp. 321-336, 1998.
[44] L. Y. Thompson, and C. R. Synder, "Measuring forgiveness," In
Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and
Measures S. J. Lopez and C. R. Snyder, Ed. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 2003, pp. 301-312.
[45] E. D. Scobie, and G. E. W. Scobie, "Damaging events: The
perceived need for forgiveness," Journal for the Theory of Social
Behavior, vol. 28, pp. 373-401, 1998.
[46] R. C. Roberts, "Forgivingness," American Philosophical Quarterly,
vol. 32, pp. 289-306, 1995.
[47] W. P. Hammond, K, H. Banks, and J. S. Mattis, "Masculinity
ideology and forgiveness of racial discrimination among African
American men: Direct and interactive relationships," Sex Roles, vol.
55, pp. 679-692, 2006.
[48] F. McLernon, E. Cairns, and M. Hewstone, "Views on Forgiveness
in Northern Ireland," Peace Review, vol. 14, pp. 285-290, 2002.
[49] M. Hewstone, E. Cairns, A. Voci, F. McLernon, U. Niens and M.
Noor, "Intergroup forgiveness and guilt in Northern Ireland: Social
psychological dimension of the ÔÇÿThe Troubles,-" In Collective guilt:
International Perspectives, N. R. Branscombe and B. Doosje. Ed,
New York: Cambridge University Press. 2004, pp. 193-215.
[50] P.E. Digeser, Political Forgiveness. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2001.
[51] M. J. A. Wohl and N. R Branscombe, "Forgiveness and collective
guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of
social category inclusiveness," Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol. 88, pp. 288-303, 2005.
[52] F. Azar, E. Mullet and G. Vinsonneau, "The propensity to forgive:
Findings from Lebanon," Journal of Peace Research, vol, 36, pp.
169-181, 1999.
[53] D. Shriver, An ethic for enemies: Forgiveness in politics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1995.
[54] F, McLernon, E, Cairns, M, Hewstone and R. Smith, "The
development of intergroup forgiveness in Northern Ireland,"
Journal of Social Issues, vol, 60, pp. 587-601, 2004.
[55] S. P. Harrell, "A multidimensional conceptualization of racismrelated
stress: Implications or the well-being of people of color,"
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol, 70, pp. 42-57, 2000.
[56] S. P. Harrell, "The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES):
Self-administration version," unpublished.
[57] R. D. Enright, and D. L. Eastin, "Interpersonal forgiveness within
the helping professions: An attempt to resolve differences of
opinion," Counseling and Values, vol. 36, pp. 84-103, 1992.
[58] M. Girard and E. Mullet, "Forgiveness: An exploratory factor
analysis and relationship to religious variables," Review of
Religious Research, vol, 34, pp. 333-347, 1997.
[59] Y.O. Park and R.D. Enright, "The development of forgiveness in
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@article{"International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences:54106", author = "Bengü Ergüner-Tekinalp", title = "Daily Experiences of Racism and Forgiving Historical Offenses: An African American Experience", abstract = "This study explored the correlates of forgiving
historical racial offenses and the relationship between daily
experiences of racism and forgiving historical racial offenses. 147
African Americans participated to the study. Results indicated that
guilt attribution, distrust, need of reparations, religion, and perception
of apology relate to forgiving past racial offenses. In addition the
more individuals experience racism related events, the less likely
they forgive the past mistreatments of African Americans.", keywords = "African Americans, forgiveness, historical offenses", volume = "3", number = "9", pages = "1729-9", }
