Corrosion Study of Magnetically Driven Components in Spinal Implants by Immersion Testing in Simulated Body Fluids
Magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGRs) have been used to stabilise and correct spinal curvature in children to support non-invasive scoliosis adjustment. Although the encapsulated driving components are intended to be isolated from body fluid contact, in vivo corrosion was observed on these components due to sealing mechanism damage. Consequently, a corrosion circuit is created with the body fluids, resulting in malfunction of the lengthening mechanism. Particularly, the chloride ions in blood plasma or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may corrode the MCGR alloys, possibly resulting in metal ion release in long-term use. However, there is no data available on the corrosion resistance of spinal implant alloys in CSF. In this study, an in vitro immersion configuration was designed to simulate in vivo corrosion of 440C SS-Ti6Al4V couples. The 440C stainless steel (SS) was heat-treated to investigate the effect of tempering temperature on intergranular corrosion (IGC), while crevice and galvanic corrosion were studied by limiting the clearance of dissimilar couples. Tests were carried out in a neutral artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) under aeration and deaeration for 2 months. The composition of the passive films and metal ion release were analysed. The effect of galvanic coupling, pH, dissolved oxygen and anion species on corrosion rates and corrosion mechanisms are discussed based on quantitative and qualitative measurements. The results suggest that ACSF is more aggressive than PBS due to the combination of aggressive chlorides and sulphate anions, while phosphate in PBS acts as an inhibitor to delay corrosion. The presence of Vivianite on the SS surface in PBS lowered the corrosion rate (CR) more than 5 times for aeration and nearly 2 times for deaeration, compared with ACSF. The CR of 440C is dependent on passive film properties varied by tempering temperature and anion species. Although the CR of Ti6Al4V is insignificant, it tends to release more Ti ions in deaerated ACSF than under aeration, about 6 µg/L. It seems the crevice-like design has more effect on macroscopic corrosion than combining the dissimilar couple, whereas IGC is dominantly observed on sensitized microstructure.
[1] J. R. Davis, Ed., Metallic Materials, Handbook of Materials for Medical Devices. ASM International, 2003.
[2] R. A. Ganz, “A Modern Magnetic Implant for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease,” Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1326–1337, Sep. 2017.
[3] D. Paley, “PRECICE intramedullary limb lengthening system,” Expert Rev Med Devices, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 231–49, 2015.
[4] P. Hosseini et al., “Magnetically controlled Growing Rods for Early-onset Scoliosis: A Multicenter Study of 23 Cases with Minimum 2 years Follow-up,” Spine, vol. 41, no. 18, pp. 1456–1462, Sep. 2016.
[5] V. C. Panagiotopoulou et al., “Analysing a mechanism of failure in retrieved magnetically controlled spinal rods,” Eur Spine J, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 1699–1710, 2017.
[6] K. H. Teoh et al., “Magnetic controlled growing rods for early-onset scoliosis: a 4-year follow-up,” The Spine Journal, vol. 16, no. 4, Supplement, pp. S34–S39, Apr. 2016.
[7] K. H. Teoh et al., “Metallosis following implantation of magnetically controlled growing rods in the treatment of scoliosis,” Bone Joint J, vol. 98-B, no. 12, pp. 1662–1667, Dec. 2016.
[8] N. Eliaz, “Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials: A Review,” Materials (Basel), vol. 12, no. 3, Jan. 2019.
[9] S. I. Tafazal and P. J. Sell, “Incidental durotomy in lumbar spine surgery: incidence and management,” Eur Spine J, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 287–290, Apr. 2005.
[10] Y. Shiono et al., “Delayed Propionibacterium acnes surgical site infections occur only in the presence of an implant,” Sci Rep, vol. 6, p. 32758, 12 2016.
[11] R. Khazim et al., “Incidence and treatment of delayed symptoms of CSF leak following lumbar spinal surgery,” Eur Spine J, vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 2069–2076, Sep. 2015.
[12] T.-Y. Lin et al., “Postoperative meningitis after spinal surgery: a review of 21 cases from 20,178 patients,” BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 220, Apr. 2014.
[13] M. K. Kasliwal, L. A. Tan, and V. C. Traynelis, “Infection with spinal instrumentation: Review of pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention, and management,” Surg Neurol Int, vol. 4, no. Suppl 5, pp. S392-403, 2013.
[14] M. E. Portillo, S. Corvec, O. Borens, and A. Trampuz, “Propionibacterium acnes : An Underestimated Pathogen in Implant-Associated Infections,” BioMed Research International, 2013.
[15] N. u. O. Jeelani, A. V. Kulkarni, P. DeSilva, D. N. P. Thompson, and R. D. Hayward, “Postoperative cerebrospinal fluid wound leakage as a predictor of shunt infection: a prospective analysis of 205 cases: Clinical article,” Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 166–169, Aug. 2009.
[16] F. Hahn, R. Zbinden, and K. Min, “Late implant infections caused by Propionibacterium acnes in scoliosis surgery,” Eur Spine J, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 783–788, Oct. 2005.
[17] B. Bose, “Delayed infection after instrumented spine surgery: case reports and review of the literature,” Spine J, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 394–399, Oct. 2003.
[18] B. R. Richards and K. M. Emara, “Delayed infections after posterior TSRH spinal instrumentation for idiopathic scoliosis: revisited,” Spine, vol. 26, no. 18, pp. 1990–1996, Sep. 2001.
[19] ASM Handbook Volume 23: Materials for Medical Devices. ASM International, 2012.
[20] I. F. Pye and G. M. Aber, “Interrelations between cerebrospinal fluid and plasma inorganic ions and glucose in patients with chronic renal failure.,” J Clin Pathol, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 631–637, Jun. 1982.
[21] ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention. ASM International, 2002.
[22] Sedriks, Corrosion of Stainless Steels 2e, 2 edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
[23] S. K. Bonagani, V. Kain, and B. Vishwanadh, “Effect of Tempering Treatments on Microstructure and Intergranular Corrosion of 13 wt% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steel,” CORROSION, vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 362–378, Dec. 2016.
[24] S. K. Bonagani, V. Bathula, and V. Kain, “Influence of tempering treatment on microstructure and pitting corrosion of 13 wt.% Cr martensitic stainless steel,” Corrosion Science, vol. 131, pp. 340–354, Feb. 2018.
[25] K. C. Zartman, G. C. Berlet, C. F. Hyer, and J. R. Woodard, “Combining dissimilar metals in orthopaedic implants: revisited,” Foot Ankle Spec, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 318–323, Oct. 2011.
[26] “ASTM F899 - 12b: Standard Specification for Wrought Stainless Steels for Surgical Instruments.” ASTM International, Dec. 2012.
[27] “ASTM F136 - 08 Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6 Aluminum-4 Vanadium ELI (Extra Low Interstitial) Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications.” ASTM International.
[28] “ASTM G31-72 (Reapproved 2004) Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals.” ASTM International.
[29] C. M. Méndez, R. E. Burgos, F. Bruera, and A. E. Ares, “Passive Films Formed on Stainless Steels in Phosphate Buffer Solution,” in Characterization of Minerals, Metals, and Materials 2016, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 563–570.
[30] L. Freire et al., “Electrochemical and analytical investigation of passive films formed on stainless steels in alkaline media,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 1075–1081, Oct. 2012.
[31] L. Freire, M. J. Carmezim, M. G. S. Ferreira, and M. F. Montemor, “The electrochemical behaviour of stainless steel AISI 304 in alkaline solutions with different pH in the presence of chlorides,” Electrochimica Acta, vol. 56, no. 14, pp. 5280–5289, May 2011.
[32] G. Sahoo, S. Fujieda, K. Shinoda, and S. Suzuki, “Influence of phosphate species on green rust I transformation and local structure and morphology of γ-FeOOH,” Corrosion Science, vol. 53, no. 8, pp. 2446–2452, Aug. 2011.
[33] L. Wang, K. Daub, Z. Qin, and J. C. Wren, “Effect of dissolved ferrous iron on oxide film formation on carbon steel,” Electrochimica Acta, vol. 76, pp. 208–217, Aug. 2012.
[34] M. Kiyama and T. Takada, “Iron Compounds Formed by the Aerial Oxidation of Ferrous Salt Solutions,” BCSJ, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 1923–1924, Jun. 1972.
[35] S. Lynch, “A review of underlying reasons for intergranular cracking for a variety of failure modes and materials and examples of case histories,” Engineering Failure Analysis, vol. 100, pp. 329–350, Jun. 2019.
[36] N. Kovačević, B. Pihlar, V. S. Šelih, and I. Milošev, “The Effect of pH Value of a Simulated Physiological Solution on the Corrosion Resistance of Orthopaedic Alloys.,” Acta chimica Slovenica, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 144–155, Mar. 2012.
[37] K. S. Raja and D. A. Jones, “Effects of dissolved oxygen on passive behavior of stainless alloys,” Corrosion Science, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 1623–1638, Jul. 2006.
[38] X. Yue et al., “Effect of Traces of Dissolved Oxygen on the Passivation Stability of Super 13Cr Stainless Steel Under High CO2/H2S Conditions,” Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., pp. 7853–7868, Aug. 2017.
[39] H. Sun, X. Wu, E.-H. Han, and Y. Wei, “Effects of pH and dissolved oxygen on electrochemical behavior and oxide films of 304SS in borated and lithiated high temperature water,” Corrosion Science, vol. 59, pp. 334–342, Jun. 2012.
[40] G. D. Eyu, G. Will, W. Dekkers, and J. MacLeod, “Effect of Dissolved Oxygen and Immersion Time on the Corrosion Behaviour of Mild Steel in Bicarbonate/Chloride Solution,” Materials (Basel), vol. 9, no. 9, Sep. 2016.
[41] R. Guilbaud, M. L. White, and S. W. Poulton, “Surface charge and growth of sulphate and carbonate green rust in aqueous media,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 108, pp. 141–153, May 2013.
[42] Y. Mao, A. N. Pham, A. L. Rose, and T. D. Waite, “Influence of phosphate on the oxidation kinetics of nanomolar Fe(II) in aqueous solution at circumneutral pH,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 75, no. 16, pp. 4601–4610, Aug. 2011.
[43] G. Ona-Nguema, M. Abdelmoula, F. Jorand, O. Benali, J.-C. Block, and J.-M. R. Génin, “Iron(II,III) Hydroxycarbonate Green Rust Formation and Stabilization from Lepidocrocite Bioreduction,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 16–20, Jan. 2002.
[44] H. C. B. Hansen and I. F. Poulsen, “Interaction of Synthetic Sulphate ‘Green Rust’ with Phosphate and the Crystallization of Vivianite,” Clays and Clay Minerals, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 312–318, 1999.
[45] M. K. Khouzani, A. Bahrami, A. Hosseini-Abari, M. Khandouzi, and P. Taheri, “Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of a Pipeline in a Petrochemical Plant,” Metals, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 459, Apr. 2019.
[46] M. a. Pacha-Olivenza, M. c. García-Alonso, R. Tejero, M. l. Escudero, A. m. Gallardo Moreno, and M. l. González-Martín, “Microbiologically induced corrosion of titanium implants,” Orthopaedic Proceedings, vol. 99-B, no. SUPP_1, pp. 22–22, Jan. 2017.
[47] I. B. Beech, J. A. Sunner, C. R. Arciola, and P. Cristiani, “Microbially-influenced corrosion: damage to prostheses, delight for bacteria,” Int J Artif Organs, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 443–452, Apr. 2006.
[48] “Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory agency (MHRA). Medical device alert: All metal-on-metal (MoM) hip replacements (MDA/2012/036).,” GOV.UK. http://www.mhra.gov.uk/ (accessed Jan. 02, 2020).
[49] “Biological Responses to Metal Implants,” FDA U.S. Food & Drug Adminitration, Sep. 2019. (Online). Available: www.fda.gov.
[50] C. H. Lohmann et al., “Periprosthetic Tissue Metal Content but Not Serum Metal Content Predicts the Type of Tissue Response in Failed Small-Diameter Metal-on-Metal Total Hip Arthroplasties,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, vol. 95, no. 17, pp. 1561–1568, Sep. 2013.
[51] B. R. Levine et al., “Ten-year outcome of serum metal ion levels after primary total hip arthroplasty: a concise follow-up of a previous report*,” J Bone Joint Surg Am, vol. 95, no. 6, pp. 512–518, Mar. 2013.
[52] K. T. Kim, M. Y. Eo, T. T. H. Nguyen, and S. M. Kim, “General review of titanium toxicity,” Int J Implant Dent, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 10, Mar. 2019.
[53] T. P. Cundy, W. J. Cundy, G. Antoniou, L. M. Sutherland, B. J. C. Freeman, and P. J. Cundy, “Serum titanium, niobium and aluminium levels two years following instrumented spinal fusion in children: does implant surface area predict serum metal ion levels?,” Eur Spine J, vol. 23, no. 11, pp. 2393–2400, Nov. 2014.
[54] A. Wisbey, P. J. Gregson, and L. M. Peter, “Effect of surface treatment on the dissolution of titanium-based implant materials,” Biomaterials, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 470–473, Jul. 1991.
[55] R. B. Heimann, “Osseoconductive and Corrosion-Inhibiting Plasma-Sprayed Calcium Phosphate Coatings for Metallic Medical Implants,” Metals, vol. 7, no. 11, p. 468, Nov. 2017.
[56] M. B. Sedelnikova, E. G. Komarova, Yu. P. Sharkeev, T. V. Tolkacheva, I. A. Khlusov, and V. V. Sheikin, “Bioactive calcium phosphate coatings on metallic implants,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1882, no. 1, p. 020062, Sep. 2017.
[57] S. Overgaard, “Calcium phosphate coatings for fixation of bone implants. Evaluated mechanically and histologically by stereological methods,” Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, vol. 71, no. sup297, pp. 1–74, Jan. 2001.
[1] J. R. Davis, Ed., Metallic Materials, Handbook of Materials for Medical Devices. ASM International, 2003.
[2] R. A. Ganz, “A Modern Magnetic Implant for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease,” Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1326–1337, Sep. 2017.
[3] D. Paley, “PRECICE intramedullary limb lengthening system,” Expert Rev Med Devices, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 231–49, 2015.
[4] P. Hosseini et al., “Magnetically controlled Growing Rods for Early-onset Scoliosis: A Multicenter Study of 23 Cases with Minimum 2 years Follow-up,” Spine, vol. 41, no. 18, pp. 1456–1462, Sep. 2016.
[5] V. C. Panagiotopoulou et al., “Analysing a mechanism of failure in retrieved magnetically controlled spinal rods,” Eur Spine J, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 1699–1710, 2017.
[6] K. H. Teoh et al., “Magnetic controlled growing rods for early-onset scoliosis: a 4-year follow-up,” The Spine Journal, vol. 16, no. 4, Supplement, pp. S34–S39, Apr. 2016.
[7] K. H. Teoh et al., “Metallosis following implantation of magnetically controlled growing rods in the treatment of scoliosis,” Bone Joint J, vol. 98-B, no. 12, pp. 1662–1667, Dec. 2016.
[8] N. Eliaz, “Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials: A Review,” Materials (Basel), vol. 12, no. 3, Jan. 2019.
[9] S. I. Tafazal and P. J. Sell, “Incidental durotomy in lumbar spine surgery: incidence and management,” Eur Spine J, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 287–290, Apr. 2005.
[10] Y. Shiono et al., “Delayed Propionibacterium acnes surgical site infections occur only in the presence of an implant,” Sci Rep, vol. 6, p. 32758, 12 2016.
[11] R. Khazim et al., “Incidence and treatment of delayed symptoms of CSF leak following lumbar spinal surgery,” Eur Spine J, vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 2069–2076, Sep. 2015.
[12] T.-Y. Lin et al., “Postoperative meningitis after spinal surgery: a review of 21 cases from 20,178 patients,” BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 220, Apr. 2014.
[13] M. K. Kasliwal, L. A. Tan, and V. C. Traynelis, “Infection with spinal instrumentation: Review of pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention, and management,” Surg Neurol Int, vol. 4, no. Suppl 5, pp. S392-403, 2013.
[14] M. E. Portillo, S. Corvec, O. Borens, and A. Trampuz, “Propionibacterium acnes : An Underestimated Pathogen in Implant-Associated Infections,” BioMed Research International, 2013.
[15] N. u. O. Jeelani, A. V. Kulkarni, P. DeSilva, D. N. P. Thompson, and R. D. Hayward, “Postoperative cerebrospinal fluid wound leakage as a predictor of shunt infection: a prospective analysis of 205 cases: Clinical article,” Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 166–169, Aug. 2009.
[16] F. Hahn, R. Zbinden, and K. Min, “Late implant infections caused by Propionibacterium acnes in scoliosis surgery,” Eur Spine J, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 783–788, Oct. 2005.
[17] B. Bose, “Delayed infection after instrumented spine surgery: case reports and review of the literature,” Spine J, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 394–399, Oct. 2003.
[18] B. R. Richards and K. M. Emara, “Delayed infections after posterior TSRH spinal instrumentation for idiopathic scoliosis: revisited,” Spine, vol. 26, no. 18, pp. 1990–1996, Sep. 2001.
[19] ASM Handbook Volume 23: Materials for Medical Devices. ASM International, 2012.
[20] I. F. Pye and G. M. Aber, “Interrelations between cerebrospinal fluid and plasma inorganic ions and glucose in patients with chronic renal failure.,” J Clin Pathol, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 631–637, Jun. 1982.
[21] ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention. ASM International, 2002.
[22] Sedriks, Corrosion of Stainless Steels 2e, 2 edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
[23] S. K. Bonagani, V. Kain, and B. Vishwanadh, “Effect of Tempering Treatments on Microstructure and Intergranular Corrosion of 13 wt% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steel,” CORROSION, vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 362–378, Dec. 2016.
[24] S. K. Bonagani, V. Bathula, and V. Kain, “Influence of tempering treatment on microstructure and pitting corrosion of 13 wt.% Cr martensitic stainless steel,” Corrosion Science, vol. 131, pp. 340–354, Feb. 2018.
[25] K. C. Zartman, G. C. Berlet, C. F. Hyer, and J. R. Woodard, “Combining dissimilar metals in orthopaedic implants: revisited,” Foot Ankle Spec, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 318–323, Oct. 2011.
[26] “ASTM F899 - 12b: Standard Specification for Wrought Stainless Steels for Surgical Instruments.” ASTM International, Dec. 2012.
[27] “ASTM F136 - 08 Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6 Aluminum-4 Vanadium ELI (Extra Low Interstitial) Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications.” ASTM International.
[28] “ASTM G31-72 (Reapproved 2004) Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals.” ASTM International.
[29] C. M. Méndez, R. E. Burgos, F. Bruera, and A. E. Ares, “Passive Films Formed on Stainless Steels in Phosphate Buffer Solution,” in Characterization of Minerals, Metals, and Materials 2016, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 563–570.
[30] L. Freire et al., “Electrochemical and analytical investigation of passive films formed on stainless steels in alkaline media,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 1075–1081, Oct. 2012.
[31] L. Freire, M. J. Carmezim, M. G. S. Ferreira, and M. F. Montemor, “The electrochemical behaviour of stainless steel AISI 304 in alkaline solutions with different pH in the presence of chlorides,” Electrochimica Acta, vol. 56, no. 14, pp. 5280–5289, May 2011.
[32] G. Sahoo, S. Fujieda, K. Shinoda, and S. Suzuki, “Influence of phosphate species on green rust I transformation and local structure and morphology of γ-FeOOH,” Corrosion Science, vol. 53, no. 8, pp. 2446–2452, Aug. 2011.
[33] L. Wang, K. Daub, Z. Qin, and J. C. Wren, “Effect of dissolved ferrous iron on oxide film formation on carbon steel,” Electrochimica Acta, vol. 76, pp. 208–217, Aug. 2012.
[34] M. Kiyama and T. Takada, “Iron Compounds Formed by the Aerial Oxidation of Ferrous Salt Solutions,” BCSJ, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 1923–1924, Jun. 1972.
[35] S. Lynch, “A review of underlying reasons for intergranular cracking for a variety of failure modes and materials and examples of case histories,” Engineering Failure Analysis, vol. 100, pp. 329–350, Jun. 2019.
[36] N. Kovačević, B. Pihlar, V. S. Šelih, and I. Milošev, “The Effect of pH Value of a Simulated Physiological Solution on the Corrosion Resistance of Orthopaedic Alloys.,” Acta chimica Slovenica, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 144–155, Mar. 2012.
[37] K. S. Raja and D. A. Jones, “Effects of dissolved oxygen on passive behavior of stainless alloys,” Corrosion Science, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 1623–1638, Jul. 2006.
[38] X. Yue et al., “Effect of Traces of Dissolved Oxygen on the Passivation Stability of Super 13Cr Stainless Steel Under High CO2/H2S Conditions,” Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., pp. 7853–7868, Aug. 2017.
[39] H. Sun, X. Wu, E.-H. Han, and Y. Wei, “Effects of pH and dissolved oxygen on electrochemical behavior and oxide films of 304SS in borated and lithiated high temperature water,” Corrosion Science, vol. 59, pp. 334–342, Jun. 2012.
[40] G. D. Eyu, G. Will, W. Dekkers, and J. MacLeod, “Effect of Dissolved Oxygen and Immersion Time on the Corrosion Behaviour of Mild Steel in Bicarbonate/Chloride Solution,” Materials (Basel), vol. 9, no. 9, Sep. 2016.
[41] R. Guilbaud, M. L. White, and S. W. Poulton, “Surface charge and growth of sulphate and carbonate green rust in aqueous media,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 108, pp. 141–153, May 2013.
[42] Y. Mao, A. N. Pham, A. L. Rose, and T. D. Waite, “Influence of phosphate on the oxidation kinetics of nanomolar Fe(II) in aqueous solution at circumneutral pH,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 75, no. 16, pp. 4601–4610, Aug. 2011.
[43] G. Ona-Nguema, M. Abdelmoula, F. Jorand, O. Benali, J.-C. Block, and J.-M. R. Génin, “Iron(II,III) Hydroxycarbonate Green Rust Formation and Stabilization from Lepidocrocite Bioreduction,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 16–20, Jan. 2002.
[44] H. C. B. Hansen and I. F. Poulsen, “Interaction of Synthetic Sulphate ‘Green Rust’ with Phosphate and the Crystallization of Vivianite,” Clays and Clay Minerals, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 312–318, 1999.
[45] M. K. Khouzani, A. Bahrami, A. Hosseini-Abari, M. Khandouzi, and P. Taheri, “Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of a Pipeline in a Petrochemical Plant,” Metals, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 459, Apr. 2019.
[46] M. a. Pacha-Olivenza, M. c. García-Alonso, R. Tejero, M. l. Escudero, A. m. Gallardo Moreno, and M. l. González-Martín, “Microbiologically induced corrosion of titanium implants,” Orthopaedic Proceedings, vol. 99-B, no. SUPP_1, pp. 22–22, Jan. 2017.
[47] I. B. Beech, J. A. Sunner, C. R. Arciola, and P. Cristiani, “Microbially-influenced corrosion: damage to prostheses, delight for bacteria,” Int J Artif Organs, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 443–452, Apr. 2006.
[48] “Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory agency (MHRA). Medical device alert: All metal-on-metal (MoM) hip replacements (MDA/2012/036).,” GOV.UK. http://www.mhra.gov.uk/ (accessed Jan. 02, 2020).
[49] “Biological Responses to Metal Implants,” FDA U.S. Food & Drug Adminitration, Sep. 2019. (Online). Available: www.fda.gov.
[50] C. H. Lohmann et al., “Periprosthetic Tissue Metal Content but Not Serum Metal Content Predicts the Type of Tissue Response in Failed Small-Diameter Metal-on-Metal Total Hip Arthroplasties,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, vol. 95, no. 17, pp. 1561–1568, Sep. 2013.
[51] B. R. Levine et al., “Ten-year outcome of serum metal ion levels after primary total hip arthroplasty: a concise follow-up of a previous report*,” J Bone Joint Surg Am, vol. 95, no. 6, pp. 512–518, Mar. 2013.
[52] K. T. Kim, M. Y. Eo, T. T. H. Nguyen, and S. M. Kim, “General review of titanium toxicity,” Int J Implant Dent, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 10, Mar. 2019.
[53] T. P. Cundy, W. J. Cundy, G. Antoniou, L. M. Sutherland, B. J. C. Freeman, and P. J. Cundy, “Serum titanium, niobium and aluminium levels two years following instrumented spinal fusion in children: does implant surface area predict serum metal ion levels?,” Eur Spine J, vol. 23, no. 11, pp. 2393–2400, Nov. 2014.
[54] A. Wisbey, P. J. Gregson, and L. M. Peter, “Effect of surface treatment on the dissolution of titanium-based implant materials,” Biomaterials, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 470–473, Jul. 1991.
[55] R. B. Heimann, “Osseoconductive and Corrosion-Inhibiting Plasma-Sprayed Calcium Phosphate Coatings for Metallic Medical Implants,” Metals, vol. 7, no. 11, p. 468, Nov. 2017.
[56] M. B. Sedelnikova, E. G. Komarova, Yu. P. Sharkeev, T. V. Tolkacheva, I. A. Khlusov, and V. V. Sheikin, “Bioactive calcium phosphate coatings on metallic implants,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1882, no. 1, p. 020062, Sep. 2017.
[57] S. Overgaard, “Calcium phosphate coatings for fixation of bone implants. Evaluated mechanically and histologically by stereological methods,” Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, vol. 71, no. sup297, pp. 1–74, Jan. 2001.
@article{"International Journal of Medical, Medicine and Health Sciences:79870", author = "Benjawan Saengwichian and Alasdair E. Charles and Philip J. Hyde", title = "Corrosion Study of Magnetically Driven Components in Spinal Implants by Immersion Testing in Simulated Body Fluids", abstract = "Magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGRs) have been used to stabilise and correct spinal curvature in children to support non-invasive scoliosis adjustment. Although the encapsulated driving components are intended to be isolated from body fluid contact, in vivo corrosion was observed on these components due to sealing mechanism damage. Consequently, a corrosion circuit is created with the body fluids, resulting in malfunction of the lengthening mechanism. Particularly, the chloride ions in blood plasma or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may corrode the MCGR alloys, possibly resulting in metal ion release in long-term use. However, there is no data available on the corrosion resistance of spinal implant alloys in CSF. In this study, an in vitro immersion configuration was designed to simulate in vivo corrosion of 440C SS-Ti6Al4V couples. The 440C stainless steel (SS) was heat-treated to investigate the effect of tempering temperature on intergranular corrosion (IGC), while crevice and galvanic corrosion were studied by limiting the clearance of dissimilar couples. Tests were carried out in a neutral artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) under aeration and deaeration for 2 months. The composition of the passive films and metal ion release were analysed. The effect of galvanic coupling, pH, dissolved oxygen and anion species on corrosion rates and corrosion mechanisms are discussed based on quantitative and qualitative measurements. The results suggest that ACSF is more aggressive than PBS due to the combination of aggressive chlorides and sulphate anions, while phosphate in PBS acts as an inhibitor to delay corrosion. The presence of Vivianite on the SS surface in PBS lowered the corrosion rate (CR) more than 5 times for aeration and nearly 2 times for deaeration, compared with ACSF. The CR of 440C is dependent on passive film properties varied by tempering temperature and anion species. Although the CR of Ti6Al4V is insignificant, it tends to release more Ti ions in deaerated ACSF than under aeration, about 6 µg/L. It seems the crevice-like design has more effect on macroscopic corrosion than combining the dissimilar couple, whereas IGC is dominantly observed on sensitized microstructure.
", keywords = "Cerebrospinal fluid, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, magnetically controlled growing rods. ", volume = "14", number = "9", pages = "275-10", }
