Assessment of Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plants as Removal Systems of Virulent Microsporidia
Microsporidia comprises various pathogenic species can infect humans by means of water. Moreover, chlorine disinfection of drinking-water has limitations against this protozoan pathogen. A total of 48 water samples were collected from two drinking water treatment plants having two different filtration systems (slow sand filter and rapid sand filter) during one year period. Samples were collected from inlet and outlet of each plant. Samples were separately filtrated through nitrocellulose membrane (142 mm, 0.45 µm), then eluted and centrifuged. The obtained pellet from each sample was subjected to DNA extraction, then, amplification using genus-specific primer for microsporidia. Each microsporidia-PCR positive sample was performed by two species specific primers for Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis. The results of the present study showed that the percentage of removal for microsporidia through different treatment processes reached its highest rate in the station using slow sand filters (100%), while the removal by rapid sand filter system was 81.8%. Statistically, the two different drinking water treatment plants (slow and rapid) had significant effect for removal of microsporidia. Molecular identification of microsporidia-PCR positive samples using two different primers for Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis showed the presence of the two pervious species in the inlet water of the two stations, while Encephalitozoon intestinalis was detected in the outlet water only. In conclusion, the appearance of virulent microsporidia in treated drinking water may cause potential health threat.
[1] L. Susskind, and R. Jain, Drinking Water Treatment. Springer Science 2011.pp 3-25.
[2] E. S. Didier, “Microsporidiosis: An emerging and opportunistic infection in humans and animals,” Acta Trop., vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 61–76, 2005.
[3] N. Corradi and P. J. Keeling, “Microsporidia: a journey through radical taxonomical revisions,” Fungal Biology Reviews, vol. 23, no. 1–2. pp. 1–8, 2009.
[4] J. Vávra and J. Lukeš, “Microsporidia and ‘the art of living together’.,” Advances in parasitology, vol. 82. pp. 253–319, 2013.
[5] H. G. Gorchev and G. Ozolins, WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality., vol. 38, no. 3. 2011.
[6] L. Cotte M. Rabodonirina, F. Chapuis, F. Bailly, F. Bissuel, C. Raynal, “Waterborne outbreak of intestinal microsporidiosis in persons with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection.,” J. Infect. Dis., vol. 180, no. 6, pp. 2003–2008, 1999.
[7] T. Graczyk, D. Conn, F. Lucy, D. Minchin, L. Tamang, L.S. Moura, A. Da Silva, “Human waterborne parasites in zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from the Shannon River drainage area, Ireland,” Parasitol. Res., vol. 93, no. 5, 2004.
[8] S. E. Dowd, C. P. Gerba, I. L. Pepper . Confirmation of the human-pathogenic microsporidia Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and Vittaforma corneae in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(9), 3332–3335, 1998.
[9] https://www.epa.gov/ccl/contaminant-candidate-list-1-ccl-1; - 2-ccl-2, accessed September 2017.
[10] C. for D. C. and Prevention, “Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control,” Webbased Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS), 2016. (Online). Available: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfilead2001.html.
[11] J. L. N. Barratt, J. Harkness, D. Marriott, J. T. Ellis, and D. Stark, “Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 23, no. 4. pp. 795–836, 2010.
[12] L. M. Weiss, “Clinical Syndromes Associated with Microsporidiosis,” in Microsporidia: Pathogens of Opportunity: First Edition, 2014, pp. 371–401.
[13] X. Li and R. Fayer, “Infectivity of microsporidian spores exposed to temperature extremes and chemical disinfectants,” Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 2006, vol. 53, no. SUPPL. 1.
[14] G. Stanfield, M. Lechevallier, and M. Snozzi, “Treatment Efficiency,” Assess. Microb. Saf. Drink. Water; Improv. Approaches Methods, pp. 159–178, 2003.
[15] K. L. T. Elt, K. L. T. Klt, B. I. Dvorak, and E. Environmental, “Drinking Water Treatment,” Afr. Health Sci., vol. 9 Suppl 2, no. 1938, pp. S59-65, 2011.
[16] T. B. Bagundol, A. L. Awa, M. Rosellynn, and C. Enguito, “Efficiency of Slow Sand Filter in Purifying Well Water,” J Multidiscip. Stud., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 2350–7020, 2013.
[17] ISO/FDIS 15553. Water quality-Isolation and identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water. pp. 23-25, 2006.
[18] Moodley P, Archer C, Hawksworth D, Leibach L. Standard Methods for the Recovery and Enumeration of Helminth Ova in Wastewater, Sludge, Compost and Urine–Diversion Waste in South Africa. Report No. TT322/08, WRC 2008.
[19] R. Weber, T. B. Ralph, L. O. Robert, C. M. Wilcox, G. Leo, and S. V. Govinda, “Improved Light - Microscopical Detection Of Microsporidia Spores In Stool And Duodenal Aspirates,” N. Engl. J. Med., vol. 346, no. 24, pp. 1845–53, 1992.
[20] D. P. Fedorko, N. A. Nelson, and C. P. Cartwright, “Identification of microsporidia in stool specimens by using PCR and restriction endonucleases,” J. Clin. Microbiol., vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 1739–1741, 1995.
[21] A. J. Da Silva, D. A. Schwartz, G. S. Visvesvara, H. De Moura, S. B. Slemenda, and N. J. Pieniazek, “Sensitive PCR diagnosis of infections by Enterocytozoon bieneusi (microsporidia) using primers based on the region coding for small-subunit rRNA,” J. Clin. Microbiol., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 986–987, 1996.
[22] A. Da Silva, S. B. Slemenda, G. S. Visvesvara, D. A. Schwartz, C. M. Wilcox, N. J. “Detection of Septata intestinalis (microsporidia) cali et al. 1993 using polymerase Chain reaction primers targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA coding region,” Mol. Diagnosis, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 47–52, 1997.
[23] World Health Organization and IWA, “Water Treatment and Pathogen Control Guidelines,” Public Health, p. 136, 2004.
[24] S. A. Tanner, I.A. Orgerth, “Evaluating the performance of slow sand filters in Northern Idaho,” J. Am. Water Work. Assoc., vol. 82, no. 12, pp. 90–100, 1990.
[25] F. Izquierdo, J. A. Castro Hermida, S. Fenoy, M. Mezo, M. González-Warleta, and C. del Aguila, “Detection of microsporidia in drinking water, wastewater and recreational rivers,” Water Res., vol. 45, no. 16, pp. 4837–4843, 2011.
[26] S. Coupe, K. Delabre, R. Pouillot, S. Houdart, M. Santillana-Hayat, and F. Derouin, “Detection of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in surface water, including recreational areas: A one-year prospective study,” FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol., vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 351–359, 2006.
[27] R. Stanwell-Smith, H. Zinnser, G. H. Brundtland, Satcher, and Wilson, Emerging Issues in Water and Infectious Disease, vol. 1. 2003.
[1] L. Susskind, and R. Jain, Drinking Water Treatment. Springer Science 2011.pp 3-25.
[2] E. S. Didier, “Microsporidiosis: An emerging and opportunistic infection in humans and animals,” Acta Trop., vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 61–76, 2005.
[3] N. Corradi and P. J. Keeling, “Microsporidia: a journey through radical taxonomical revisions,” Fungal Biology Reviews, vol. 23, no. 1–2. pp. 1–8, 2009.
[4] J. Vávra and J. Lukeš, “Microsporidia and ‘the art of living together’.,” Advances in parasitology, vol. 82. pp. 253–319, 2013.
[5] H. G. Gorchev and G. Ozolins, WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality., vol. 38, no. 3. 2011.
[6] L. Cotte M. Rabodonirina, F. Chapuis, F. Bailly, F. Bissuel, C. Raynal, “Waterborne outbreak of intestinal microsporidiosis in persons with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection.,” J. Infect. Dis., vol. 180, no. 6, pp. 2003–2008, 1999.
[7] T. Graczyk, D. Conn, F. Lucy, D. Minchin, L. Tamang, L.S. Moura, A. Da Silva, “Human waterborne parasites in zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from the Shannon River drainage area, Ireland,” Parasitol. Res., vol. 93, no. 5, 2004.
[8] S. E. Dowd, C. P. Gerba, I. L. Pepper . Confirmation of the human-pathogenic microsporidia Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and Vittaforma corneae in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(9), 3332–3335, 1998.
[9] https://www.epa.gov/ccl/contaminant-candidate-list-1-ccl-1; - 2-ccl-2, accessed September 2017.
[10] C. for D. C. and Prevention, “Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control,” Webbased Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS), 2016. (Online). Available: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfilead2001.html.
[11] J. L. N. Barratt, J. Harkness, D. Marriott, J. T. Ellis, and D. Stark, “Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 23, no. 4. pp. 795–836, 2010.
[12] L. M. Weiss, “Clinical Syndromes Associated with Microsporidiosis,” in Microsporidia: Pathogens of Opportunity: First Edition, 2014, pp. 371–401.
[13] X. Li and R. Fayer, “Infectivity of microsporidian spores exposed to temperature extremes and chemical disinfectants,” Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 2006, vol. 53, no. SUPPL. 1.
[14] G. Stanfield, M. Lechevallier, and M. Snozzi, “Treatment Efficiency,” Assess. Microb. Saf. Drink. Water; Improv. Approaches Methods, pp. 159–178, 2003.
[15] K. L. T. Elt, K. L. T. Klt, B. I. Dvorak, and E. Environmental, “Drinking Water Treatment,” Afr. Health Sci., vol. 9 Suppl 2, no. 1938, pp. S59-65, 2011.
[16] T. B. Bagundol, A. L. Awa, M. Rosellynn, and C. Enguito, “Efficiency of Slow Sand Filter in Purifying Well Water,” J Multidiscip. Stud., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 2350–7020, 2013.
[17] ISO/FDIS 15553. Water quality-Isolation and identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water. pp. 23-25, 2006.
[18] Moodley P, Archer C, Hawksworth D, Leibach L. Standard Methods for the Recovery and Enumeration of Helminth Ova in Wastewater, Sludge, Compost and Urine–Diversion Waste in South Africa. Report No. TT322/08, WRC 2008.
[19] R. Weber, T. B. Ralph, L. O. Robert, C. M. Wilcox, G. Leo, and S. V. Govinda, “Improved Light - Microscopical Detection Of Microsporidia Spores In Stool And Duodenal Aspirates,” N. Engl. J. Med., vol. 346, no. 24, pp. 1845–53, 1992.
[20] D. P. Fedorko, N. A. Nelson, and C. P. Cartwright, “Identification of microsporidia in stool specimens by using PCR and restriction endonucleases,” J. Clin. Microbiol., vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 1739–1741, 1995.
[21] A. J. Da Silva, D. A. Schwartz, G. S. Visvesvara, H. De Moura, S. B. Slemenda, and N. J. Pieniazek, “Sensitive PCR diagnosis of infections by Enterocytozoon bieneusi (microsporidia) using primers based on the region coding for small-subunit rRNA,” J. Clin. Microbiol., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 986–987, 1996.
[22] A. Da Silva, S. B. Slemenda, G. S. Visvesvara, D. A. Schwartz, C. M. Wilcox, N. J. “Detection of Septata intestinalis (microsporidia) cali et al. 1993 using polymerase Chain reaction primers targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA coding region,” Mol. Diagnosis, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 47–52, 1997.
[23] World Health Organization and IWA, “Water Treatment and Pathogen Control Guidelines,” Public Health, p. 136, 2004.
[24] S. A. Tanner, I.A. Orgerth, “Evaluating the performance of slow sand filters in Northern Idaho,” J. Am. Water Work. Assoc., vol. 82, no. 12, pp. 90–100, 1990.
[25] F. Izquierdo, J. A. Castro Hermida, S. Fenoy, M. Mezo, M. González-Warleta, and C. del Aguila, “Detection of microsporidia in drinking water, wastewater and recreational rivers,” Water Res., vol. 45, no. 16, pp. 4837–4843, 2011.
[26] S. Coupe, K. Delabre, R. Pouillot, S. Houdart, M. Santillana-Hayat, and F. Derouin, “Detection of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in surface water, including recreational areas: A one-year prospective study,” FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol., vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 351–359, 2006.
[27] R. Stanwell-Smith, H. Zinnser, G. H. Brundtland, Satcher, and Wilson, Emerging Issues in Water and Infectious Disease, vol. 1. 2003.
@article{"International Journal of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences:76706", author = "M. A. Gad and A. Z. Al-Herrawy", title = "Assessment of Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plants as Removal Systems of Virulent Microsporidia ", abstract = "Microsporidia comprises various pathogenic species can infect humans by means of water. Moreover, chlorine disinfection of drinking-water has limitations against this protozoan pathogen. A total of 48 water samples were collected from two drinking water treatment plants having two different filtration systems (slow sand filter and rapid sand filter) during one year period. Samples were collected from inlet and outlet of each plant. Samples were separately filtrated through nitrocellulose membrane (142 mm, 0.45 µm), then eluted and centrifuged. The obtained pellet from each sample was subjected to DNA extraction, then, amplification using genus-specific primer for microsporidia. Each microsporidia-PCR positive sample was performed by two species specific primers for Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis. The results of the present study showed that the percentage of removal for microsporidia through different treatment processes reached its highest rate in the station using slow sand filters (100%), while the removal by rapid sand filter system was 81.8%. Statistically, the two different drinking water treatment plants (slow and rapid) had significant effect for removal of microsporidia. Molecular identification of microsporidia-PCR positive samples using two different primers for Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis showed the presence of the two pervious species in the inlet water of the two stations, while Encephalitozoon intestinalis was detected in the outlet water only. In conclusion, the appearance of virulent microsporidia in treated drinking water may cause potential health threat.
", keywords = "Removal, efficacy, microsporidia, drinking water treatment plants, PCR.", volume = "11", number = "12", pages = "1040-6", }
