Application of Particle Image Velocimetry in the Analysis of Scale Effects in Granular Soil

The available studies in the literature which dealt with the scale effects of strip footings on different sand packing systematically still remain scarce. In this research, the variation of ultimate bearing capacity and deformation pattern of soil beneath strip footings of different widths under plane-strain condition on the surface of loose, medium-dense and dense sand have been systematically studied using experimental and noninvasive methods for measuring microscopic deformations. The presented analyses are based on model scale compression test analysed using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique. Upper bound analysis of the current study shows that the maximum vertical displacement of the sand under the ultimate load increases for an increase in the width of footing, but at a decreasing rate with relative density of sand, whereas the relative vertical displacement in the sand decreases for an increase in the width of the footing. A well agreement is observed between experimental results for different footing widths and relative densities. The experimental analyses have shown that there exists pronounced scale effect for strip surface footing. The bearing capacity factors rapidly decrease up to footing widths B=0.25 m, 0.35 m, and 0.65 m for loose, medium-dense and dense sand respectively, after that there is no significant decrease in . The deformation modes of the soil as well as the ultimate bearing capacity values have been affected by the footing widths. The obtained results could be used to improve settlement calculation of the foundation interacting with granular soil.





References:
[1] H. M. Jaeger, S. R Nagel, and R. P. Behringer, “Granular solids, liquids, and gases,” Rev. Mod. Phys., vol. 68, no.4, pp. 1259-1273, Oct.1996.
[2] S. J. Antony, “Link between single-particle properties and macroscopic properties in particulate assemblies: role of structures within structures,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, vol. 365, pp. 2879-2891, Sept. 2007.
[3] J. E. Bowles, Foundation Analysis and Design, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1997.
[4] B. M. Das, Shallow foundations: bearing capacity and settlement, 2nd ed., CRC Press, London, 2009.
[5] C. Liu, and J. B. Evett, Soils and foundations, 6th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2004.
[6] K. Terzaghi, and R. B Peck, Soil mechanics in engineering practice. Wiley, London, 1967.
[7] S. Hansbo, Foundation engineering, Elsevier, London, 1994.
[8] J. H. Schmertmann, P. R. Brown, and J. P. Hartman, “Improved strain influence factor diagrams,“ J. Geo. Eng. Div. vol. 104, no. GT8, pp. 1131-1135, Aug.1978.
[9] R. J. Adrian, “Particle-imaging techniques for experimental fluid mechanics”, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 23, pp. 261-304, 1991.
[10] C. O’Loughlin, and B. Lehane, “Nonlinear cone penetration test-based method for predicting footing settlements on sand, “J. Geo. Geoenviron. Eng., vol. 136, no.3, pp. 409-416, Aug. 2010.
[11] T.G. Murthy, E. Gnanamanickam, and S. Chandrasekar, “Deformation field in indentation of a granular ensemble,“ Phys. Rev. E, vol. 85, no.061306, pp.1-11, June 2012.
[12] Z. K. Jahanger, S. J., Antony, J., Richter, “Displacement patterns beneath a rigid beam indenting on layered soil,“ in Pro. 8th Amer. Reg. Conf. Inter. Soc. Terrain-Vehicle Sys. Michigan, 2016, Paper No.67.
[13] S. Albaraki, and S.J. Antony, “How does internal angle of hoppers affect granular flow? Experimental studies using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry,”Pow. Techn., vol. 268, pp. 253-260, Aug. 2014.
[14] ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials, Soil and Rock, Building, Stores, Geotextiles, ASTM Standard, vol. 04.08, 1989.
[15] K. Head, Manual of Soil Laboratory Test. Volume 1: soil Classification and Compaction Tests, 3rd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006.
[16] J. Liu, and M. Iskander, “Adaptive cross correlation for imaging displacements in soils,“ J. Comput. Civil Eng., vol. 18, no.1, pp. 46-57, Jan. 2004.
[17] J. Dijkstra, D. J. White, and C. Gaudin, “Comparison of failure modes below footings on carbonate and silica sands,” Int. J. Phys. Model. Geotech., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-12, Aug. 2013.
[18] C.K. Lau, Scale effects in tests on footings, PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, UK, 1988.
[19] A. Altaee, and B. H. Fellenius, “Physical modeling in sand,” Can. Geotech. J. vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 420-431, Feb. 1994.
[20] G.P. Raymond, and F.E. Komos, “Repeated load testing of a model plane strain footing,” Can. Geotech. J., vol.15, no. 2, pp. 190-201, Nov. 1978.
[21] D. White, and M. Bolton, “Displacement and strain paths during plane-strain model pile installation in sand,” Géotechnique, vol. 54, no.6, pp. 375-397, Apr. 2004.
[22] J. Kumar, and M.K Bhoi, “Interference of two closely spaced strip footings on sand using model tests,” J. Geo. Geoenviron. Eng., vol. 135, no. 4, pp. 595-604, Apr.2009.
[23] E. Hamm, F. Tapia, and F. Melo, “Dynamics of shear bands in a dense granular material forced by a slowly moving rigid body,” Phys. Rev. E, vol. 84, no.041304, pp. 1-7, Oct. 2011.
[24] S. O. Akbas, and F. H. Kulhawy, “Axial compression of footings in cohesionless soils. I: Load-settlement behavior,” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., vol.135, no.11. pp. 1562-1574, Nov. 2009.
[25] A.S. Vesic, “Analysis of ultimate loads of shallow foundations,” Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, vol.99, no. SM1, pp. 45-73, Jan.1973.
[26] E. E. De Beer, Bearing capacity and settlement of shallow foundations on sand, in Proc. of Symp. Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Foundation, Duke University, Durham, N.C. 1965, pp. 15-33.
[27] J. Lee, J. Eun, M. Prezzi, and R. Salgado, “Strain influence diagrams for settlement estimation of both isolated and multiple footings in sand,” J. Geo. Geoenviron. Eng., vol.134, no.4, pp. 417-427, Apr. 2008.
[28] P. W. Mayne, and H. G. Poulos, “Approximate displacement influence factors for elastic shallow foundations,” J. Geo. Geoenviron. Eng., vol. 125, no. 6, pp. 453-460, June 1999.
[29] W. F. Chen, Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, J. Ross Publishing, Fort Lauderdale, USA, 2008.
[30] A. J. Lutenegger, and D. J. DeGroot, “Settlement of shallow foundations on granular soils,” University of Massachusetts Transportation Center, Amherst, MA 01003, report no. 6332, June 1995.
[31] L. Bjerrum, A. and Eggestad, “Interpretation of loading test on sand.” in Proc. of European Conf. in Soil Mechanics, Weisbaden, West Germany 1, 1963, pp.199-203.
[32] K. Terzaghi, R. B. Peck, and G., Mesri, Soil mechanics in engineering practice, third ed., John Wiley and sons, New York, 1996.
[33] N. F. Ismael, and A. H. N. Ahmad, “Bearing capacity of footings on calcareous sands.” Soils Found., vol. 30, no. 3, pp.81-90, Sept. 1990.
[34] B. Cerato, and A. J. Lutenegger, “Scale effects of shallow foundation bearing capacity on granular material,” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., vol. 133, no. 10, pp.1192-1202, Oct. 2007.